Role of Nutrients in Diet and Digestion - Essay Example

SECTION 3 HIGHLIGHTED BELOW – THIS IS EASILY IDENTIFIABLE AND IT HAS BEEN THERE SINCE THE FIRST TIME I REVISED THIS ORDER Diet and Digestion By: Institution: Course: Instructor: Date 2. The body obtains most of the energy and nutrients that it requires from the food that an individual eats. Most of the nutrients we eat can be absorbable in the form of small molecules. For this purpose, food needs to be broken down from large to small molecules in the alimentary canal. Nutrient and dietary needs vary according to sex, age and levels of physical activity. Nutrients necessary for bodily function are either macro nutrients or micro nutrients (BRYNIE 2002, pg9). Macronutrients include the carbohydrate, proteins and fats. Carbohydrates which provide most of the energy required for metabolism and other functions of the body can be classified into three. These include monosaccharaides, disaccharides and polysaccharides (BRYNIE 2002, pg14). Proteins mainly aid in replenishing worn out tissues and are composed of strings of amino acids. On the other hand, fats, responsible for tendon maintenance can be grouped into saturated or unsaturated fatty acids. Essential fatty acids such as the omega 3 and omega 6 constitute building blocks of the body (JACOB 2013, pg22). The 13 different types of vitamins and minerals such as calcium and potassium constitute the micro nutrients necessary for body function. They can be obtained from the main diet or other sources. TAQ 1: 1 (153 words) A teenage male athlete Breakfast: oatmeal with 1/3 cup blueberries, 16 ounces of water. Lunch; grilled chicken breast, spinach, baked potato. Diner: Fried fish, steamed broccoli, brown rice. A pregnant woman in her 30s Breakfast: cereal, fresh fruit juice, ripe banana. Lunch: boiled pasta, steamed broccoli, fried fish fillet, nuts such as wall nuts or ground nuts and water (a few minutes after meal). Diner deep fried chicken, vegetable and fruit salad, fried fresh spinach and water (a few minutes after meal). An elderly male hospital patient Breakfast: oatmeal, banana, fresh fruit juice. Brunch: egg sandwich, 3 medium mango slices, hot beverage. Lunch Swanson chicken dumplings, mango slice or pineapple slice, fried rice and peas stew. Diner: spaghetti, meat balls and steamed broccoli. It is recommended that on daily basis, the meals of elderly patients should include five to twelve portions of grains, five to ten portions of vegetables and fruits, three portions lactose products and three servings of alternatives of meat or meat itself TAQ1: 2:1 In simplest terms, the process of digestion is the only way in which nutrients and foods can be broken down and absorbed as useful energy or beneficiary compounds in the human body. For this purpose, digestion plays a more pivotal role in overall human health and development than most individuals would otherwise indicate. Without this vital and pivotal process, essential nutrients and energy could not be broken down and ultimately passed along into the bloodstream as a means of being absorbed by individual cells. Those individuals that suffer hardships or disease related to digestion oftentimes experience situations in which nutrients cannot be fully broken down and absorbed as a result of the fact that the process is not as effective or functional within their bodies as compared to those in relatively good overall digestive health. 2.1.2 (450 words) The body of a teenage athlete burns calories quite quickly. Maintaining muscle mass, strength and power for an athlete is necessary for maintaining appropriate body weight. If a teenager athlete does not eat right, he risks a lower performance and developing growth deficiencies. Healthy eating helps a teenager athlete to maintain high performance without the risk of conceding their health. Carbohydrates serve to provide fuel for the body. While grains and brown rice proves to be healthy choices due to their rich content in vitamins, fiber and minerals. In addition, water serves to be the most important nutrient for the teenagers as well as the pregnant mothers. Continuing with physical activities without drinking water leads to dehydration. Therefore, water needs to be taken often. The most important micronutrients for these athletes mainly include the calcium and iron. Calcium needs to consume in large quantities so as to deter fractures during championships or osteoporosis in the later years. Usually, female athletes need to ensure that they take more calcium. This mainly occurs due to lower estrogen levels and therefore lesser bone strength. On the other hand, iron is vital since it circulates oxygen in the body. Lower iron levels would translate to fatigue as well low energy. These mineral may be obtained through Vitamin C rich diets. Pregnant mothers need to take meals that amount to 1800 calories or more. This is because they would be eating for two individuals including the unborn baby. Though they may experience cravings for particular foods, pregnant women need to ensure they partake in food rich in iodine, folic acids and iron. This nutrients enable for appropriate growth and development for the unborn baby. A pregnant mother needs folic acids at a daily quantity of 400micro grams. Folic acid aids in barring any birth defects. These micronutrient could obtained as folate through leafy vegetables as well as brown rice. Also iron helps to prevent anemia as well as boost energy levels. These could be obtained from leafy vegetables, nuts or other iron rich foods. Calcium helps to ensure that the bones of both the mother and the fetus maintain a healthy mass. Deficiency in calcium may be exhibited on cravings to consume dust. For an elderly, male patient, their body needs more calcium and vitamin D in order to maintain healthy and strong bones. Fruit juices with fortified cereals alongside low fat and fat free dairy products need to amount to a daily average calorie content of roughly 1600. This is mainly because, as individuals grow older their metabolism tend to slow down due to lose of muscles and more accumulation of fats. Many hospitalized elderly patients tend to be at a high risk of malnutrition. Often the increased length of stay, compromised immunity and impaired muscle and respiratory functions for this patient contribute to malnutrition. Therefore it is recommended that sources of vitamin C and Zinc minerals need to be increased. Minimization of sodium tends to minimize chance of the onset of hypertension by reducing the individual’s blood pressure. In addition, those patients above the age of 70 need to include 600IU of calcium and vitamin D in their daily diet. Following numerous studies done in nutrition, the addition of dietary fiber aids in eradication of constipation, obesity as well as managing colon cancers. Based on height, weight, age and levels of physical activity, the daily energy needs of an individual can be estimated. With the use of BMI as an indicator, the number of mortality rates increases with an increase on overweight case (NIX & NIX 2013, pg25). In a study conducted in the United States, 53% of all deaths amongst women with a BMI less than 29kg/m2 could be out rightly accredited to obesity. The eating practices associated with obesity and overweight include binge eating, snacking, eating out as well as exclusive breast feeding. The nutritional factors under investigation include refined carbohydrates, fat and fiber (NIX & NIX 2013, pg19). TAQ 2.1.3: 488 Identification of the sites of production for digestive juices Digestive juices originate from different regions of the body and aid in the digestive process in a number of different ways. All total, digestive juices originate and are produced within the mouth, the stomach, the pancreas, the liver, and the gallbladder. In terms of the process of digestive and the secretion of digestive juices in the mouth, these are of course concentric upon the product of saliva from the salivary glands. These glands allow for certain key enzymes to be introduced to the food that is in the process of mastication within the mouth and then subsequently swallowed. Enzymes, electrolytes, and mucous produced and secreted by the salivary glands has a direct and oftentimes overlooked role in the way in which the digestive process takes place. The stomach lining effectively engages the next step of the digestive process; by producing acid and more enzymes that help to break down certain types of proteins that are represented within the food that is ingested. Likewise, once the stomach empties the food into the small intestine, the juices of other organs mix with the stomach juices and food that have been extracted into the small intestine. The pancreas plays a primary role in this process; as it is responsible for producing and releasing another unique set of enzymes that are capable of breaking down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Following the process even further, bile is produced by the liver as a means of mixing with the fat that is represented in the mixture coming from the stomach. Once the bile effectively dissolves the fat, the enzymes are able to more effectively complete the process of digestion with the complicated nature and impediment of fat out of the way. Finally, the gallbladder serves as something of a retention organ for bile; so that as food enters the small intestine, the gallbladder secretes the bile it has stored into the upper portion of the small intestines; through the duodenum. The Importance of Food as it Relates to Health: Food should be taken in proper and adequate amounts so as to maintain perfect health. Disorders that arise from diet pose serious challenges to an individual’s health and could also become fatal if ignored. The obesity and malnutrition both arise from improper dieting. Obesity results from eating more than the body requires while as malnutrition arises from eating less than what the body demands for metabolism, growth and other daily activities. In addition, the body mass index (BMI) measures the degree of over nutrition or under nutrition (NIX & NIX 2013, pg71). Osteoporosis, a disease that affects women more than it does men leads to fragile bones and increases bone fractures mainly around the wrist, hip or spine. Diagnosis of the disease involves taking a measure of the bone mineral density (BMD) which does not involve any pain or surgery. Various factors that contribute towards this disease include older age, history of the disease in the family and mainly being a woman. Other modifiable risk factors include inactivity and anorexia. The development of the disease banks on inadequacy of calcium minerals in infancy of adolescence (JACOB 2013, pg33). Another important determinant that contributes to significant body weight involves lack of physical activity. Physical fitness and activity significantly modify the rate of mortality and morbidity associated with obesity and overweight (MILLER 2009, pg123). Evidently, moderate to high levels of physical fitness contribute to a significantly reduced cardiovascular infections and all causes of mortality. Low cardiovascular fitness poses as a serious comorbidity of obesity and mortality in obese populations. Malnutrition, another eating disorder arises as a result of inadequate uptake or retention of nutrients in the body. It appears as general weight loss, fatigue and general social unresponsiveness. If left untreated, malnutrition would become fatal as in the case of anorexia (MILLER 2009, pg91). In a study conducted by NP Steyn, the findings illustrated a variation in the incidence and prevalence of type 2 diabetes between the sexes of two study populations. The prevalence of the type 2 diabetes increases with increase in age despite considerable variation in incidence. Previously, the disease considered to be associated with adults reported an occurrence in children. Even in the contemporary world, the disease can only be detected through screening it remains asymptomatic (JONEJA 2004, pg09). TAQ3 (a) Digestion takes place in two facets, namely mechanical digestion and chemical digestion. In mechanical digestion, physical breakdown of large particles of food into smaller particles takes place. The mechanical digestion increases surface area of food substance so as to allow for the action of digestive enzymes (DEBRUYNE et al., 2008, pg77). It occurs in the mouth where the teeth cut and grind the food as well as in the stomach where the stomach and the small intestines keep churning the food during digestion. In chemical digestion, a sequence of hydrolysis reactions breaks down the molecules to monomers. Eventually, assimilation of nutrients into the body take place through processes like emulsification, formation of micelles and absorption of nutrients. TAQ 3 (b) (261 words) Organ Process Importance Mouth mechanical digestion As the digestion begins in the mouth, saliva from the glands located in the head, drains into the bolus from a network of ducts. The saliva contains mucus which lubricates as well as moistens the food before swallowing. Oesophagus Peristalsis As food gets swallowed, it joins the pharynx and the esophagus which propel the food down into the stomach with an aid of peristalsis. Pancreas Chemical digestion and release of enzymes Responsible for the production and retention of insulin and a variety of enzymes that are responsible for breaking down certain types of proteins and fats Stomach chemical digestion, Once the food reaches the stomach, the stomach wall linings secrete a hydrochloric acid and pepsin. The acid dissolves the particles of food as well as killing bacteria that enters the body along with the food. Liver Chemical digestion Production of bile and digestion of complex fats and other insoluble proteins. Small intestine chemical digestion absorption assimilation Digestion of fats occurs primarily in the small intestine which occurs due to the pancreatic lipase which breaks down fats into monoglyceride products. Although emulsification of fats speeds up digestion, absorption of the water-soluble products of the lipase reaction tends to be slow thereby necessitating formation of micelles. Large intestine Absorption The large intestine concentrates the contests of the undigested material by absorbing salts and water. Anus Defecation The internal anal sphincter closes the anus in collaboration with the external anal sphincter, composed of skeletal muscle. Here, abrupt distention of walls of the rectum sparked by mass movement of digestion residue into it compels it to go into a defecation reflex (VACCARIELLO & JACKSON 2012, pg45). The reflex action occurs as a result of contractions of the rectum, increased peristalsis of the colon, contraction of the external anal sphincter and relaxation of the internal anal sphincter. Whereas it is ultimately true that there is mucosa represented in the stomach, small intestine, and large intestine, the similarity between the mucosa is not as prominent as one might at first assume. The underlying reason for this is contingent upon the different roles that these mucosa are responsible for fulfilling within their respective organs. For instance, the mucosa within the stomach contains a high number of glands an pits. The overall surface is smooth and, as described by many researchers, even velvety. The reason behind this is obviously due to the caustic chemicals that the stomach is subjected to; such that direct contact with longer and more differentiated tendrils would create a situation in which they could potentially be damaged more easily. The prominence of glands and pits are of course essential in storing the stomach acids and juices that are secreted upon the initiation of the digestion process. The small intestine features a mucosa that is covered in wrinkles and folds; known as plicae circulars. These are permanent features within the organ and do not change as the digestion process is taking place; as compared to the wall of the mucosa in the inner stomach. They further feature millions of microscopic fingers that allow for enzymes to be injected and absorption to take place as the food moves along the digestive tract. By means of contrast, the mucosa of the large intestine are punctuated by crypts and gauges that absorb nutrients and allow for mucus secreting cells to more directly come in contact with the food in question. This of course aids in the absorption and breakdown of the nutrients to a more effective degree as there is a larger overall surface area of contact between the body and the, by then, liquefied food content. In the small intestines, amino acids and monosaccharides get absorbed into the blood stream. This is done through special transporter-mediated procedures in the epithelial cells of the intestine whereas through diffusion, fatty acids get absorbed into the body. Since most absorption of nutrients takes place in the small intestine, only little amounts of undigested material, salts and water get passed on into the large intestine (SNEDDER 2010, pg91). The large intestine concentrates the contests of the undigested material by absorbing salts and water. Contractions of the rectum at the end of the digestion process leads to defecation of the wastes from the body. TAQ 3 (C) Name of digestive juice Site of production Enzyme in digestion Function of enzyme SALIVA glands located in the head amylase saliva helps in initializing the digestion of polysaccharides. Also, saliva helps in dissolving food molecules which react with chemoreceptors in the mouth and give rise to a sense of taste (JONEJA 2004, pg43). carboxypeptidase Pancrease split off amino acids from carboxyl ends of the peptide chains Amino peptidase Walls of small intestine split off amino acids from carboxyl ends of the peptide chains bile liver Cholesterol, bile pigments, phospholipids bicarbonate and other organic waste known as bile salts. The bicarbonate component helps to neutralize the acid while the bile salts dissolve dietary fats. hydrochloric acid Walls of the stomach lining acid The acid dissolves the particles of food as well as killing bacteria that enters the body along with the food. Gastric juice stomach Hydrolytic enzymes Breaks down the fats, carbohydrates and proteins into fatty acids, monosaccharides and amino acids respectively (DEBRUYNE et al., 2008, pg81). pepsin stomach breaks down proteins into trypsin and chymotrypsin pancreatic lipase pancrease lipase breaks down fats into monoglyceride products colipase pancrease binds the lipase enzyme as it holds it onto the lipid droplet (NIX & NIX 2013, pg50). As the digestion begins in the mouth, saliva from the glands located in the head, drains into the bolus from a network of ducts. The saliva contains mucus which lubricates as well as moistens the food before swallowing. The enzyme amylase in the saliva helps in initializing the digestion of polysaccharides. Also, saliva helps in dissolving food molecules which react with chemoreceptors in the mouth and give rise to a sense of taste (JONEJA 2004, pg43). As food gets swallowed, it joins the pharynx and the esophagus which propel the food down into the stomach with an aid of peristalsis. Once the food reaches the stomach, the stomach wall linings secrete a hydrochloric acid and pepsin. The acid dissolves the particles of food as well as killing bacteria that enters the body along with the food. The mucous along the stomach wall lines help in lubrication and protection of the lining from the acid. The acidic environment of the stomach, otherwise known as the gastric, alters the connective tissues of the proteins which are then partially digested by amylase and pepsin. For a typical adult, daily carbohydrate intake ranges from 250 - 800 g a day. Roughly, two-thirds of this carbohydrate constitutes of plant polysaccharide starch, and the rest constitute of sucrose and lactose. Complex polysaccharides such as cellulose cannot be broken down the enzymes released into the small intestine and are passed into the large intestine (NIX & NIX 2013, pg37). Digestion of starch begins in the mouth where the salivary amylase begins to break it down to maltose and a mixture of glucose components. These disaccharides then get broken down further into monosaccharides such as fructose, glucose and galactose in the small intestine. Fructose diffuses through the thin-walled epithelial cells of the small intestine while galactose and glucose undergo active transport with the help of sodium molecules (JONEJA 2004, pg11). While in the stomach, pepsin breaks down proteins into trypsin and chymotrypsin. Further digestion occurs to free amino acids by carboxypeptidase secreted by the pancreas and amino-peptidase secreted from the membranes of the small intestines. These two enzymes split off amino acids from carboxyl ends of the peptide chains (POLLARD 2006, pg61). As it happens with carbohydrates, digestion and absorption of proteins take place largely in the upper small intestine. The free amino acids coupled with sodium enter the epithelial cells through secondary active transport. Subtle amounts of unbroken proteins gain access to the interstitial fluid. This mainly occurs because absorption of these proteins tends to be higher in infants than it is in adults. For instance, the breast milk can be absorbed by an infant until it starts producing its antibodies (NIX & NIX 2013, pg23). Digestion of fats occurs primarily in the small intestine which occurs due to the pancreatic lipase which breaks down fats into monoglyceride products. In order to speed up the digestion, emulsification takes place resulting in lipid droplets (POLLARD 2006, pg59). Emulsifying agents coat the lipid droplets to prevent aggregation into bigger fat. However, this inhibits the access of the water soluble lipase to its lipid substrate. Therefore, the pancreas releases colipase which binds the lipase enzyme as it holds it onto the lipid droplet (NIX & NIX 2013, pg50). Although emulsification speeds up digestion, absorption of the water-soluble products of the lipase reaction tends to be slow thereby necessitating formation of micelles. These micelles consist of fatty acids, mono glycerides and phospholipids. They increase absorption by breaking down and reforming thus releasing it contents into the solution which can then be diffused across the intestinal lining. Although monoglycerides and fatty acids enter the intestinal lumen through the epithelial cells, only triacylglycerol gets released into the interstitial fluid. The exit of these fat droplets mimics that path of the secreted proteins. Vesicles bearing the droplets grab the endoplasmic reticulum and thus processed through the Golgi apparatus which eventually fuses with the plasma membrane and releases the droplet into the interstitial fluid (NIX & NIX 2013, pg66). In vitamins, the fat-soluble vitamins which include vitamins such as A, D, E and K tend to follow the processes discussed in fat digestion. They are similarly encompassed in micelles and therefore interferences with secretion of bile tend to minimize the absorption of the same. Except vitamin B12 all other water soluble vitamins can diffuse into the blood stream. To aid in its absorption in the lower intestine, Vitamin B12 requires an intrinsic factor-which is protein in this case (POLLARD 2006, pg111). While in the stomach, the peristalsis of the gastric muscle reduces food into a solution known as chyme which contains soluble molecules of food. However, very little absorption occurs in the stomach. In the final stages, digestion occurs mainly along the small intestine which measures 9ft long. The three sections of the small intestine include the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Here hydrolytic enzymes breakdown the fats, carbohydrates and proteins into fatty acids, monosaccharides and amino acids respectively (DEBRUYNE et al., 2008, pg81). Initial absorption of nutrients begins here whereby the products of digestion enter the lymph or the blood stream. Also, the body absorbs water, vitamins and minerals which do not require enzymatic reactions. The length of the small intestine serves a medium that increases surface area for absorption of nutrients.  In addition, the length of the small intestine slows down the movement of the chyme in the intestine to allow for maximum absorption of nutrients. The liver, located on the upper right of the abdomen performs a variety of functions. It performs exocrine functions which include synthesis and secretion of bile salts which aid in absorption of fats and boosts digestion. In addition, it secretes bicarbonate solution which neutralizes the acidic nature of the chyme entering the duodenum (DEBRUYNE et al., 2008, pg64). Also, it performs endocrine functions such as activation of vitamin D and secretion of insulin as well as metabolizing hormones. Another function includes the organic metabolism which converts glucose into glycogen and triacylglyceroids and amino acids to fatty acids during the absorption stage. Also, it synthesizes triacylglycerols in order to secrete them as lipoproteins in the stages of absorption. It processes glycogen into glucose during post absorption period and releases glucose to the blood stream. Eventually, it converts fatty acids into ketones during fasting. Another function of the kidney involves cholesterol metabolism through which it release cholesterol into the blood as well as secrete plasma cholesterol into bile (VACCARIELLO & JACKSON 2012, pg21). Bile comprises of cholesterol, bile pigments, phospholipids bicarbonate and other organic waste known as bile salts. The bicarbonate component helps to neutralize the acid while the bile salts dissolve dietary fats. The liver secretes bile into small ducts that join to form the hepatic duct. Between meals, previously secreted bile stays in the gallbladder underneath the liver. When eating, the walls of an individuals gallbladder contract, thereby releasing bile solution into the duodenum (POLLARD 2006, pg90). TAQ 4 (370 words) Copyright The McGraw Hill Company Diagram of digestive system The large intestine, which extends four feet long begins with a cecum which extends to the appendix. The second portion consists of the colon divide into three segments; the ascending portion, transcending portion and the descending portion (VACCARIELLO & JACKSON 2012, pg31). The end of the descending portion which exhibits an S-shape forms a sigmoid colon which empties to the rectum. Primarily, the large intestine stores fecal material in preparation for defection. Chyme joins the cecum through the ileocecal sphincter. The sphincter usually remains closed. However, after a meal, the reflexes, lead to the ileal contractions which in turn lead to the relaxation of the sphincter thereby allowing chyme to join the large intestine (SNEDDER 2010, pg89). At the end of the gastrointestinal tract, there exists an exit, referred to as the anus. The internal anal sphincter closes the anus in collaboration with the external anal sphincter, composed of skeletal muscle. Here, abrupt distention of walls of the rectum sparked by mass movement of digestion residue into it compels it to go into a defecation reflex (VACCARIELLO & JACKSON 2012, pg45). The reflex action occurs as a result of contractions of the rectum, increased peristalsis of the colon, contraction of the external anal sphincter and relaxation of the internal anal sphincter. The digestive system associates with the enteric nervous system which in turn regulates the secretions, motility and blood flow within the digestive tract. Damage to the spinal cord could result loss of control over defecation (DEBRUYNE et al., 2008, pg73). As discussed above, sphincters act as gate valves. Along the gastrointestinal tract, various types of sphincters which perform diverse tasks exist (SHILS 2005, pg45). They include the upper esophageal sphincter, the lower esophageal sphincter, the pyloric sphincter, ileocecal valve, internal anal sphincter and finally the external anal sphincter. As stated above in the esophagus, the stomach also exhibits peristaltic waves in response to anticipation of food. As the wave gets stronger towards the atrium, a more powerful contraction closes the pyloric sphincter of the stomach thereby allowing regulated amounts of chyme into the duodenum (SHILS 2005, pg48). Another sphincter referred to as the sphincter of Oddi exists in the liver at the point where it joins the duodenum. TAQ 5: 442 words Anatomy of the digestive tract follows a basic structural plan whereby the wall of the tract consists of the following tissue layers from the inner to the outer surface. The mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa and the serona form important part of the inner layers (SNEDDER 2010, pg77). The mucosa, a mucous lining of the lumen has layers of the inner epithelium, lamina propria and muscularis mucosae (SHILS 2005, pg41). The inner epithelium mostly consists of simple columnar cells except at the mouth, oesophagus and lower anal canal which constitute of stratified squamous cells. The lamina propria mainly constitutes of loose connective tissue layer. On the other hand; the muscularis mucosa, which constitutes a thin-smooth muscle, helps in improving efficiency in digestion as well as nutrient absorption. The mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT) exhibits abundance of lymphatic nodules. Also, the muscularis externa consists of the inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. The serosa has the areolar tissue and the mesthelieum (SHILS 2005, pg39). The submucosa, a thicker layer of loose connective tissue, consists of lymphatic vessels, blood vessels and a nerve plexus. The MALT extends into the submucosa in the GI tract. The muscularis externa consists of the inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer. The inner circular layer thickens to form sphincters which act as gate valves for the passage of any substance through the tract. The outer longitudinal layer takes responsibility for motility and propels food through the gastrointestinal tract (JACOB 2013, pg62). The serosa composed of a thin areolar tissue and simple squamous mesothelium begins almost three centimeters to the end of the oesophagus and ends just before the rectum. The mesenteries of the peritoneum consist of connective tissue which holds the stomach and the intestines away from the abdominal wall. This, therefore, allows the organs to exhibit all manners of contractions including the strenuous ones (JACOB 2013, pg78). Also, they allow mobility within the abdominal cavity and prevent the intestines from twisting or tangling owing to body positions or its own contractions. In addition, the mesenteries provide a channel for nerves and blood vessels which supply the digestive system and contain lymph nodes and lymphatic vessels. The parietal peritoneum which forms dorsal mesentery consists of a serous membrane covering the abdominal cavity. The layers of mesentery separate and revolve to the opposite sides forming the serosa. They form the ventral mesentery which continues as another sheet of tissues of on the far sides of the organs. The lesser omentum attaches the liver to the stomach while as the greater omentum protects the small intestines by forming a deep pouch between its superficial layers (SHILS 2005, pg55). Reference BRYNIE, F. H. (2002). 101 questions about food and digestion that have been eating at you-- until now. Brookfield, Conn, Twenty-First Century Books. DEBRUYNE, L. K., PINNA, K., WHITNEY, E. N., & CATALDO, C. B. (2008). Nutrition and diet therapy: principles and practice. Belmont, CA, Thomson Wadsworth. JACOB, A. (2013). Digestive health with real food: a practical guide to an anti-inflammatory, low-irritant, nutrient-dense diet for IBS & other digestive issues. Bend, Or, Paleo Media Group. JONEJA, J. M. V. (2004). Digestion, diet, and disease: irritable bowel syndrome and gastrointestinal function. New Brunswick, N.J., Rutgers University Press. MILLER, C. A. (2009). Nursing for wellness in older adults. Philadelphia, Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. NIX, S., & NIX, S. (2013). Williams basic nutrition and diet therapy. St. Louis, Mo, Elsevier. POLLARD, J. K. (2006). The digestive awareness diet: you are how you eat. Concord, Calif, Generic Human Studies Pub. SHILS, M. E. (2005). Modern nutrition in health and disease. Philadelphia, Pa. [u.a.], Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. SNEDDEN, R. (2010). Understanding food and digestion. New York, Rosen Central. VACCARIELLO, L., & JACKSON, H. (2012). The digest diet: breakthrough science! : the best foods for fast, lasting weight loss. 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