Biology of Food - Essay Example

?Yiting Liu Oct 26 Biology of food Speaking of tough-and-stringy beef, If a cow (or a person) eats more calories than they use, what happens to the "excess?" If a person eats more calories than they use, the excess calories are stored in the body as fat. The unique high fructose corn syrup sauce contains a high amount of fructose (sugar) which is excess calories needed in the body. Digestion, absorption, and metabolism of fructose favor the production of fat in the liver. Fructose does not stimulate insulin secretion nor does it promote leptin production. Insulin and leptin regulate food intake and body weight, thus consumption of high fructose corn syrup sauce contributes to increased energy ingestion and weight gain. This is because high fructose corn syrup is absorbed faster than general sugar (glucose) and it does not fuel the manufacture of insulin or leptin. This prevents body signals triggers for being full and leads to over consumption of calories consumed. Consumption of this sauce leads to the body storing the excess calories as fat. This fat storage is commonly evident with the increase of obesity rates and other diseases i.e. diabetes in America. 2.So here's our cow Rupert, trudging down to the Rio Grande, then back up to the plains to graze.  Nivanka starts trying to visualize what's going on in his leg muscles. Muscle tissue is disseminated almost everywhere in the body. Muscles are responsible for the movement of materials within and throughout the body. Muscles contain 4 unique characteristics: elasticity, extensibility, contractility, and excitability. Each skeletal muscle is made up of fascicles; which are bundles of muscle fibers. Muscle fibers have myofibrils; which are composed of myofilaments. Actin and myosin are located in muscle fibers. They play a role in muscle contraction; producing movement. In regard to muscle movement, the protein heads of myosin cross- bridges connect to an actin binding region and bend slightly; heaving actin filaments with it. This aids the muscle in movement production. Tropomyosin covers up the regions of attachment when the muscle is not contracting. ATP helps muscles to perform their functions. ATP is made by the muscles. The following steps make ATP: creatine phosphate is broken down by the addition of ADP to create ATP. Second step: Anaerobic respiration is carried out; glucose is broken down to lactic acid ATP is formed. Third step: Aerobic respiration is carried out, glucose, fats, amino acids, and glycogen is broken down in the existence of oxygen to create ATP. Energy obtained from ATP is used to reorganize the myosin cross- bridge protein head and liberate the actin filaments. The force of contraction in a muscle cell is generated by the cyclic interaction of two proteins, namely actin and myosin. The free energy that drives this reaction is obtained from the hydrolysis of ATP. ATP binding provokes a conformational revolutionization in myosin that deteriorates its actin affinity and causes myosin to detach from actin. ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and inorganic phosphate , and the hydrolysis products linger bound to myosin. Myosin rebinds to actin and the energy generating power-stroke convoys subsequent phosphate release. ADP is released, and the cycle reiterates upon ATP binding. When ATP connects to the myosin nucleotide location of an actomyosin complex, the myosin is quickly released from the actin filament. Myosin splits the ATP, and the myosin-products multifaceted rebinds to actin, pursued by product release. No, Rupert would not get very far as he would run out of ATP quickly. This is because the up and down activity requires energy. Energy is used in the form of ATP. In the absence of ATP, myosin binds tightly to actin. 3. Fortunately, there's more going on in cow muscles.  A molecule of glucose enters the cell.  Things happen to it in the cytoplasm.  Describe those things, taking care to mention: The following are the enzymes responsible for activities that take place when a molecule of glucose enters the cell: Pyruvate carboxylase- mitochondrial enzyme that converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase- converts pyruvate to phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose bisphosphatase- catalyzes the hydrolysis of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Phosphofructokinase- regulates Fructose bisphosphatase, it is present in many tissues; it allows the formation of glucose-6-phosphate for glycogen synthesis and other purposes. Glucose-6-phosphatase- is present only in the liver and kidney. It hydrolyzes glucose-6-phosphate to release free glucose Glucose is converted to two pyruvic acid molecules. This process consists of a sequence of chemical reactions that breaks down glucose into two pyruvates and generates 2ATP and 2NADH. In the existence of oxygen each pyruvate molecule can consequently enter mitochondria to produce more vigor via Krebs cycle and electron transport method. The process of glycolysis is an anaerobic procedure that consists of series of chemical steps as follow: (1.) As soon as glucose enters the cell, a phosphate is added to carbon number 6 of glucose, and the new molecule is called glucose 6 phosphate. In this step ATP is converted to ADP (one phosphate of ATP is removed and added to carbon number 6 of glucose). (2.) Glucose 6 phosphate goes through the second phosphorylation reaction and a phosphate is added to Carbone number 1. The new molecule produced as a result is called Fructose 1,6 Bisphosphate (3). The Fructose 1,6 bisphosphate will split into two 3 carbon molecule: a. Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate b. Dihydroxyacetone (4). Glyceraldehyde goes through series of chemical reactions and becomes pyruvate. During the first step NADH is generated form NAD, during the second step one ATP is generated from one ADP, during the third step water molecule is produced, and during the fourth step one ATP is generated from one ADP molecule. (5). Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is converted to glyceraldehyde and will follow the same series of chemical reactions and will be converted to pyruvic acid. Two pyruvic acid molecules. Vitamin B1- connects glycolysis to the citric acid cycle. No, if there were no more than the myosin activity, and cytoplasmic processing of glucose; he would not have made it to the top. This is because; the metabolic pathways yield potential to improve cell work i.e. glycolysis. 4. Is Rupert breathing?  Yes?  Good -- that means more things can happen... Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle. Riboflavin (flavin adenine dinucleotide- FAD), and nicotinamide, (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide- NAD) are essential vitamins in this process; that have the task of electron carriers. Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl CoA by NAD+. CO2 is released. Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle to generate NADH, FADH2 and ATP. The final electron acceptor is oxygen in aerobic respiration. NADH is the principal source of H atoms. ATP synthase enzyme manufactures ATP essential for cells. ATP synthase is found in all living organisms that undergo aerobic respiration and are positioned where cellular respiration happens. ATP production by cells sustains life by acting as the energy source of complex metabolic pathways. To maintain its “life,” each cell depends on highly coordinated biochemical reactions. Food conversion into energy requires the use of oxygen, to make ATP (Campbell & Farrell, 517). ATP synthase enzyme serves as power store, that produces an energy-carrying molecule called adenosine triphosphate. ATP synthase enzyme manufactures ATP from ADP and phosphate. ATP synthase enzyme contains a complex structure; it had a stator, which curves around the outside of the structure to aid in the support of the head to the base. When H+ flows via the base and out of the side of the ATP synthase enzyme, they power the axle and base to rotate. This motion causes the alignment of an ADP next to a phosphate; this forms ATP. Many cellular processes use ATP; breaking it to ADP and phosphate. This is recycled back into ATP by ATP synthase enzyme. Rupert’s ability to make it to the top is determined by the fate of the pyruvates. In his case, he is breathing; he will oxidize pyruvate to CO2 and H2O. Metabolic energy (ATP) is derived from plant carbohydrates. The metabolism of carbohydrates (grass) is conquered by glucose because this sugar is an essential fuel molecule in most living beings. During glycolysis; glucose is phosphorylated and linked to form two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Each glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is then converted to a molecule of pyruvate. A small amount of energy is captured in two molecules each of ATP and NADH (Campbell & Farrell, 517). ATP production is essential for the mechanism of muscle movement. ATP is produced as a result of glucose (anaerobic) or fatty acid (aerobic) metabolism. Muscle contraction is powered by ATP-driven structural changes within the myosin II head domain. It is Ca 2+ which initiates the muscle contraction. In the absence of Ca 2+, The myosin heads cannot rebind the actin because of the troponin complex. There are two binding locations on each myosin head, one for ATP an additional one for actin. The cross bridge (head) of myosin has a compulsory site for ATP. ATP attaches to myosin heads when they are skewed back in their low energy location. When ATP is hydrolyzed into ADP in addition to phosphate, the power is freed and transferred to the myosin head. After the ATP has been hydrolyzed in the direction of ADP and phosphate, the vigor is transferred to the myosin head. The sequence of events Rupert’s leg muscles consist of: 1. Entry of calcium triggering the exposure of binding sites on actin. 2. The requisite of myosin in the direction of actin. 3. The power blow of the cross bridge that causes the gliding of the thin filaments. 4. Requisite of ATP to the cross bridge, which leads to the cross bridge disconnecting from actin. 5. Hydrolysis of ATP, which results to the re-energizing and repositioning of the cross bridge. 6. Convey of calcium ions back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 5. Francine also walked to the top of the gorge, and she became exhausted.  She must have been out of shape, and didn't have enough myoglobin in her leg muscles to keep the oxygen concentration high enough.  Francine underwent anaerobic respiration. This is because the oxygen bound by the myoglobin was all used up in her leg muscles; thus homolactic fermentation occurred in which lactate the only organic product was produced in her muscles. The NADH produced during the conversion of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to glycerate- 1, 3-bisphosphate is oxidized when pyruvates were converted to lactate. Lactate is released by red blood cells and other cells that lack mitochondria or have low oxygen concentrations. Similarities include NAD regeneration known as; Anaerobic reactions/ fermentation which take place in the absence of oxygen. This leads to the conversion of pyruvates to several reduced molecules. 6. But Rupert won't be tough and stringy.  He was just a young cow, and was sent to a "finishing operation" where he had a yummy diet of corn at an all-you-can-eat buffet, and he only had to take three or four steps to get to the watering trough.  He gained a lot of weight really fast...and then he became hamburgers An advantage to the consumers is the meat eaten will be tender and more nutritious. This is based on the fact that the nutrient intake of the cow is checked. This method has an advantage to the owners of the “finishing operation” as Rupert will gain weight rapidly as he will consume extra calories, bringing a profit. The current lifestyle is a fattening strategy; adding a nutritional benefit to the cattle. Bacteria in rumen act as fermentors that aid in the digestion process. Rupert was originally a pasture-fed cow. The abrupt change in his diet to corn contributed to a decrease in the numbers of useful bacteria in the rumen, and an increase in the amount of acid- producing bacteria. This is because the corn diet was rapidly fermented by bacteria in the rumen, producing large quantities of lactic acid, which lowers the pH in the rumen. This brings about acid buildup making the animal ill or die. The routine use of carbohydrates was essential. This is due to a decline in the numbers of useful bacteria in the rumen, and an enhancement in the amount of acid-producing bacteria. Lactic acid draws fluid into the rumen from the tissues and blood, ensuing in dehydration. Lactic acid can cause severe harm to the rumen wall (rumenitis), facilitating fungal or bacterial attack of the body. This effect leads to the routine use of antibiotics. There are antibiotic resistant bacteria as the effect on the rumen led to the routine use of antibiotics. Continual and misuse of antibiotics leads to drug resistance. This is because, as treatment goes on, some bacterial strains die, while others do not die and hide in the body, specifically body organs. These strains develop high resistance and produces daughter strains with high antibiotic resistance. This cycle continues, with some bacterial strains dying and others becoming more resistant to the antibiotic and multiplying. This effect contributes to antibiotic resistance. Pathogen resistance may take the form of induced genetic mutation or the accumulation of resistance genes via conjugation, horizontal gene transfer, transformation and or transduction. An antibiotic resistance strain is readily spread via the ecosystem of the pathogen. The antibiotic resistance genes are passed on to the body cells of the cow, just like the way genes are obtained. This results to the new body cells containing the antibiotic resistant gene. This way explains how the O157:H7got on the meat. The girl consumed undercooked hamburger; which resulted to her getting an infection which O157:H7 cannot be killed by antibiotics due to resistance. O157:H7 can only die under very high temperature. The girl consumed an undercooked hamburger leading to E. coli O157:H7 infection. 7.And nationwide, people are scarfing down Whoppers, Quarter-pounders, and Big Macs by the bucketful.  The reason we have Concentrated Feeding Operations is to supply enough beef to support this feeding frenzy.  And the human population is increasing. According to the food pyramid, natural ecosystems have so much mass of herbivores than carnivores. This is because green plants are the feed of all herbivores and the carnivores depend on the herbivores for food. Besides, not every plant gets eaten.   Taking care of an animal for consumption is 16 times more energy. According to my reasoning, less than 50% of farm land used on animals can support vegetarians. This will save energy, water, and earth.   The first way of avoiding this crisis is promoting a vegan diet. This can be made possible by the use of advertisements, encouraging a vegan diet. With the increasing obese and sick population, people must be encouraged to live a healthy life. They must be shown the vegetarian way of life so as to live a healthy long life. Antibiotic resistance bacteria can be avoided in animals by introducing them to corn feed immediately, also the animals must be limited to antibiotic administration; this is the second method. The best way of avoiding the antibiotic resistance strains in meals; as not everyone can accept the vegan way of life is to breed and sell cattle that have been fed correctly; this is the third way. People who buy meat must be advised to completely cook the meat and not eat undercooked meat so as to avoid cases of infection, this is the fourth way. Lastly, the government must come up with a certification board, which will analyze meat sold, for any case of antibiotic resistant bacteria. This will promote the issue of Work cited Campbell, Mary K, and Shawn O. Farrell. Biochemistry. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning, 2012. Print. Read More