Physical and Cultural Aspect of the City of Islamic Origins - Essay Example

Physical and Cultural Aspect of the of Islamic Origins, Which Are Still Present In the Contemporary Arab al Affiliation: Physical and Cultural Aspect of the City of Islamic Origins, Which Are Still Present in the Contemporary Arab City Introduction The Islamic City as a concept regards to the synthesis of socio-religious customs and spatial patterns, in terms of complex layering within the Islamic arena. Many individuals Islam as a religion is viewed by as being an urban religion, favoring communal practice on the inherent individual form of worship. While piety continues being amongst the limited sources of appraisal, it is widely accepted that a majority of the religious teachings are best practiced within an urban setting. It is thus not surprising to note that Islam did make particular emphasis on both the design and form of the city. This was towards enabling greater responsiveness and functionality, vital in meeting the cultural and socio-economic needs of the Umma. Islam’s ascent to dominance as a world religion was influenced by its penetration of different regions of the globe i.e. Europe, Asia and Africa. This resulted in an overwhelming and irreversible impact on these regions’ urban development. As Saoud (2002) alludes, Islam as an urban religion was based on the community’s commitment to religious values, beliefs and practices relating to both authority and organization, and emphasizing more on social gathering/ togetherness. This was as opposed to the encouragement of human dispersal and nomadic lifestyle, which were characteristics of early Islamic life. As a result, early Muslim centers and towns were erected with the core responsibility of preaching Islam (Saoud, 2002). The essence of Islam as an urban religion was to sprout out of this ideal, as the religion was best adhered to in communal gatherings, as opposed to personal prayer and devotion. Historically, early centers served primarily as places of worship i.e. those of the Maghreb, Rabat and Tunis. Their role was that of – a Citadel of Faith – as Fischel (1956) eludes, dedicated to receiving and providing habitat for new converts. Also critical to this role, was the concept of such cities being referred to as Dar-El-Hijra, places where Muslims came to practice the Islamic way of life. It is through this critical avenue that Islam was spread throughout North Africa, and subsequently the whole of the region in addition to southern Europe. Thus, religious role was a key aspect of the emergence of such thriving towns and cities. This prestigious role of the towns and cities, as religious centers, was replaced by political motives during the 9th Century AD. The turbulence of this era resulted in the breakaway of such regions, from the traditional link to the main Caliphate, situated in the East. Conflicts and local divisions were influential to the above, further being augmented by the persistent raids of the nomadic tribes. It is such unstable conditions, which ultimately undermined the very birth, growth and survival of various towns, which unfortunately bore, and continue bearing the effects of the disputes and divisions. Thus, the rise of new capitals (of administration and governance), often were achieved at the price of those conquered, and subsequently deserted. This state of affairs was to continue on until the 16th Century arrival of the Ottomans. Their desire was to revive the old Caliphate, in addition to defending against Portuguese and Spanish occupation of the North African Western Coast. Through this initiative, they were able to take control of a majority of the regions in Islamic World with a few exceptions i.e. Arabian Peninsula, Morocco and Persia (Fischel, 1956). This resulted in the return of peace, security and human prosperity, which as such, served as the main constituent for urban recovery and future growth. This enabled the rise and flourish of many new towns, in addition to the larger expansion of existing centers, which all thrived on existing trade and commerce. This state of affairs drastically changed by the 17th Century primarily as a result of the increased power of Imperial Europe. The main role of such centers thus, became provision of military enforcements, critical to the Ottoman’s resistance against the Mediterranean Sea’s domination by Europe. As a result of European advantages; in terms of skillful strategy, superior weapons and economic might, the urban civilization that had emerged, contributing to the very essence of the cultural and physical aspects of the Islamic City, started eroding. This was influenced fundamentally, by the exhaustion of local resources, because of the prolonged warfare, thereby resulting in another urban-decline cycle. By the 18th and 19th Centuries, Muslim cities had already experienced difficult situational contexts i.e. the presence of widespread famine and disease in North Africa, in addition to the colonization of huge Islamic regions. Of core impact however, was the resulting ‘death sentence’ of the traditional Muslim city, as a result of the introduction of alien socio-cultural, economic and morphological aspects. The resulting ‘Westernization’ of all core aspects of social life resulted in the foundation of European architecture. This created complex situational contexts, which resulted in the slow emptying of the Islamic city from its core functional viability (Al-Islam.org., 2013). This was further eroded as a result of independence, when a majority of Muslim states adopted modernization policies in their quest for development. This only led to further alienation of what was left, of the traditional Islamic city. The Islamic/ Muslim city, possessed unique design principles, factors which played key roles in the shaping and ordering of the form and plan of such arenas. Aside from the fundamental influence of the prevailing local topography, as well as the morphological features found the general Muslim City symbolized political, economic and socio-cultural structures of the population present. These were the design principles, which uniquely identified such urban centers, as Islamic faith-based arenas. Design Principles of the Islamic City Fundamentally, Islam as a religion was founded in Arabic contexts, hence the need to delve into the cultural and physical aspects of the resulting urban foundations. These revolved around such aspects as cultural and religious beliefs the existing natural laws, social standards, and Sharia-law compliant design principles. Concerning cultural and religious beliefs, these were the foundations of cultural practice for the populations present; thus the presence of the Mosque’s central position/ placement within the center’s institutional and spatial hierarchies. Cultural beliefs present, further separated private from public life, regulating the spatial order between these areas and their use (Hassan, 1972). As a result, the town’s plan usually consisted of narrow streets, as well as cul-de-sacs, which ideally separated public from private domains. Land utility, further emphasized the Islamic regulation of separating women from male users. As a consequence, the prevailing economic activities, involving both public presence and exchange of goods/ products, became separated from the private/ residential arena. These were concentrated more in public areas, as well as such city’s main streets, as opposed to private dwelling quarters. Natural laws were fundamentally the core principle, which defined much of the Islamic City’s characteristics. This was concerning the adaptation f the building plan and form/structure of the Islamic City, to the prevailing natural contexts present. As Hakim (1986) alludes, these were represented in the form of surrounding topography, and the prevailing weather conditions. Thus, such centers were expressions of the inhabitants’ adoption of unique concepts such as gardens, narrow covered streets, terraces and courtyards. These elements were functional in nature, thus aiding the residents with capacity to cope with the dominating hot weather conditions present. All designs to be noted were fundamentally influenced by the Islamic Sharia Law in varying contexts. The ideal Islamic city reflected Sharia Law compliance, in term s of both social and physical relations and interactions between the private and public realms. This was the case between social group interaction and private dwelling areas, with the privacy principle being made into law, setting the standard height of walls to be above that of a camel rider. In addition was the presence of property rights all of which determined the resultant form of the Islamic city. Social principles finally augmented the prevailing systems and standards set, as aforementioned. Since the social organization of existing urban societies, was based on the kinship relation of such populations, development was thus directed at meeting the resulting needs (Hakim, 1986). These groupings, shared the same ethnic origin, blood and cultural perspectives. Thus, development was focused on social needs fundamental to the existence and preservation of these social groups. Focus was thus primarily based on kinship solidarity, prevailing religious practices, social order and defense. Such groupings included Jews, Moors, Arabs and others i.e. Turks, Berbers and Andalusians. Most notably was the reflection of this concept on quarters regarded as Huma in the Maghreb, and Ahiaa in the Mashraq region. In addition, other facts were clearly translated into the densely built form of the private and public arenas. These include factors such as strong communal interaction, separation of the genders, privacy and extended-family structures; all of which were characteristics fundamental to the Arab way of life and social interaction. The hegira era regards the period, when newly converted Muslim, followed the Prophet Muhammad, in migrating from Mecca to Medina. This period, as Bassiouni (2012) portrays, is defined as having been during the year 622 CE. Remarkable, was the fact that in the larger Arabia region, there existent no form of political organization, except that of Yemen with recognition of authority being that of the tribal chiefs. ‘Lawlessness’ thus characterized early Arabic life, prior to the advent of Islam, with crimes and wrongdoing being dealt with, by way of vendettas. Due to the lack of such administrative arms as the police, a court system and judges, pre-Islamic Arabia (the greater Middle East region) survived on the controlling factor of reprisals and vendetta. An individual was thus protected by his own tribe, in the event of wrongdoing. This was in order to escape vendetta (revenge attacks) and reprisals, which were often extremely brutal. Tribalism (Asabiyya) thus took centre stage, acting as the last resort of protection for typical populations present then. Contempt, humiliation and ridicule, were often the results encountered, by a tribe, which failed to protect its members. To be noted was the fact that ethics did not play any role in such affairs, thus resulting in the ceaseless warfare as a result of the anarchist nature of pre-Islamic Arabs. The nomadic tribes viewed war as a vital component of their daily lives, essential in bringing honor and prestige to their tribes (Bassiouni, 2012). In addition was the excitement generated, was the fact that warfare was also waged against small settlements and caravans, which resulted in the latter often having to buy immunity, by way of fines and protection fee. Most notable of urban dwelling arenas, was the Qurayish-led city Mecca, the larger Hejaz region. The city dwellers, as Saoud (2002) alludes, primarily survived on different economic activities such as artisanship, usury and trade/ commerce. With Muhammad’s arrival, he molded out of this rough mass, a ‘nation’; based primarily on Islam. He initiated a new form of dynamism, explosive creativity and idealism, which was to change their course of history. This resulted in a unified populate; who until them had been dispersed and individually weak. Under the sign of Islamic religious faith, the Islamic world was to find unity and a goal, as a propulsive center. Due to Islam as a religion having originated and subsequently developed in an Arab culture, Arabic customs thus permeated in all cultures, which adopted Islam. Islamic cities were mainly founded on dynastic rule or monarchies, thereby developing autonomous dependent on such contexts. Examples include the cities of the Abbasid and Umayyad era, as well as the Kitta model, in addition to the influence of Greek-Roman inclined geometry. The first four centuries of Islam, did not witness either the homogenization or synthesis of different cultural approaches. Rather, what was experienced was the transmission of such cultures, and at given instances, their absorption into the values framework of Islam. The Umayyad and Abbasid eras were critical to the cultural and physical aspects of the Islamic cities present. So too were later day contacts with both Persia and Greece. Alexander’s (the Great) conquest of Asia Minor set the state for greater migration of Greek science, philosophy and even cultural aspects. Umayyad rule was based in Damascus, with power later on shifting to the city of Baghdad, during the Abbasid rule. Umayyad rule was characterized by the retention of customs and tastes affiliated to Arab culture. The Abbasid rulers on the other hand, founded an Islamic polity that was based on Islamic religious affiliation, as opposed to race or nationality (Saoud, 2002). Thus, there was an influx of different intellectual, racial and cultural heritages, all of which added to the diverse nature of subsequent Islamic culture, design and architecture. To be noted however is that fact that Muslims did not endure much conflict between human reason and religious faith as faced by the then rising Roman Empire. Muslims on the contrary, as Hassan (1972) states, were guided by the Qur’an, which enjoined them to seek knowledge throughout their lives; despite the source or to where such knowledge was to lead to. This is a critical feature that was espoused during the Abbasid period, resulting in the quick recovery of philosophical and scientific works of the classical era. These were found neglected, mainly in the Byzantium libraries and thereafter translated into Arabic. The Umayyad period mainly represented an era in which conservatism was projected, especially concerning either clan or tribal affiliation. Thus, while Islam encompassed their overall way of life a majority of Muslim populations did have variations concerning their physical surrounding and cultural expression. There was an array of variance, from the nomadic Bouadines and Berbers (mainly tribal desert dwellers), to the city dwellers of big Islamic cities and towns. Characteristically, this diverse nature was often symbolically espoused in social interaction. Differences in traditional and cultural aspects did exist, all guided under the strict code of Sharia Law; however, the uniqueness of a people was enforced (Hassan, 1972). In conclusion, the Abbasid era, regarded as the golden age of Islam, provided a unified drive, at enhancing the Islamic way of life through uptake of all knowledge available. It is from this that Islamic aspects were influenced by Romano-Greek philosophy, architecture and design, in addition to culture, and governance. Towards this interaction was the Bait al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom), which was instrumental in the vast uptake of foreign knowledge to be skillfully applied under Islamic positions. The effects of this were therefore to, (and still) last for many millennia. As al-Farabi was to espouse in his masterwork – The Perfect City – the Islamic way of life, in terms of urban dwelling and habitation, was influenced majorly by Greek, and to some extent, Roman culture and science. This was through productive and successful assimilation into the Islamic way of life, given the fact that Islam is regarded as an urban religion. References Al-Islam.org. (2013). A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims [Arabia before Islam]. Al-Islam Organization, retrieved from: http://www.al-islam.org/restatement-history-islam-and-muslims-sayyid-ali-ashgar-razwy/arabia-islam Bassiouni, M.C. (2012, Jan. 24). Islamic Civilization. Middle East Institute, retrieved from: http://www.mei.edu/content/islamic-civilization Fischel, I.W. (1956). The City of Islam. Middle Eastern Affairs, 7: 227-232. Hakim, B. (1986). Arabic Islamic Cities: Building and Planning Principles. London: Kegan Paul. Hassan, R. (1972). Islam and Urbanization in the Medieval Middle East. Ekistics, 33: 108-109. Saoud, R. (2002). Introduction to the Islamic City. Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilization (FSTC Limited). Read More