History of the Parthenon and Its Barrier Breaking Architecture - Essay Example

?The History of the Parthenon and its barrier breaking architecture "Earth proudly wears the Parthenon as the best gem upon her zone" Ralph Waldo Emerson Introduction The Parthenon or ???????? in ancient Greek is a Doric temple built on the Athenian Acropolis in Greece as a place of worship for goddess Athena who was regarded as a patron by the people of Athens. The temple (see Figure 1) is widely recognized today as an architectural marvel due to its elaborate design, use of materials, and exquisite structural decorations. The construction of this temple is deemed to have commenced during the early 447 BC and the building was finally inaugurated in 438 BC after installation of the statue of goddess Athena. The building was designed by architects IKtinos and Kallikrates who included various sculptural decorations - both within and outside the temple thus making it the face of Athens. The elaborate designing of the monument is characterized by the use of coherence and harmony based on the foundation of mathematical calculations i.e. a ratio of 9: 4 where the length of the building was more than twice that of its width and the distance between the columns was more than twice their diameter (Belozerskaya and Lapatin 72). Figure 2: Plan of the Parthenon, 447 BC – 432 BC Source: Pedley, 2005: pp. 69 The 9:4 ratio used during construction was applied for plan i.e. length: width as well as for elevation. The key architectural style used was that commonly found in the construction of Doric temples which is indicated by the formula used for total number of columns i.e. eight peristyle columns on the front and back and seventeen columns (2x + 1) on the flank (Pedley 69). Due to its unique architectural design the Parthenon is unanimously acknowledged as a symbol of Greek democracy as well as one of the greatest cultural monuments in the world. Brief historical background: The Parthenon is believed to be built on huge platform similar in size to the new Parthenon as indicated by the large scale excavations carried out on the site, thus indicating that a similar building was sought to be constructed by the ancient Greeks on the same scale as the Parthenon. The pre-Parthenon or the older building which was believed to be destroyed by during the Persian invasion in 480 BC were found to have used marble columns drums which were destroyed by fire due to the pressure. These marble column drums were later re-used in the construction of the new Parthenon in the north wall of the Acropolis as a symbol of the great Greek sacrifice and loss endured by them. Similarly various other previously destroyed artifacts found as a part of excavation were used in the construction of the new Parthenon (Beard 103). Figure 3: The Parthenon View from the north west, 447 - 432 BC Source: Pedley, 2005: pp. 68 One of the key features of the Parthenon is that it has been built out of recycled materials. Researchers have found evidence regarding the re-use of old materials based on the existence of a small temple (naiskos) located at the Parthenon's north colonnade, in the area between the fifth and eight columns from the east side of the temple (see figure 4). It was believed that the shrine found on the location existed long before the Parthenon was built and that it could be a part of the older Parthenon (Neils 27). Historians have argued that contrary to the popular belief that the new Parthenon was built as a dedication to the patron goddess Athena, the temple was built as an anathema - "a votive offering, not in the honor of Athena but of her glory- seeking, democratic, imperial city". It was believed to uphold the democratic ideals of the Athenians and hence was dedicated by the people to the people (Hurwit 166). The Parthenon was destroyed by the Turkish forces after a long siege resulting in conversion of the temple into a mosque. The Ottoman Turks completely transformed the Parthenon into a mosque by whitewashing the walls to cover the Christian frescoes; blocking the windows and the converting the Christian watch tower into a minaret (Hurwit 166). Architecture The Parthenon is known for its elaborate classical architecture. A monument which was originally built as a temple for the patron goddess Athena comprises of massive columns, ornamental friezes complete with exquisite portrayals of processions of men and Gods; metopes illustrating the battle between good and evil; as well as pediments which are detailed and elegant and exemplify the key elements of effective architecture (Sethares, 50). The Parthenon is known as the perfect accomplishment of a Doric temple architecture which indicates that the architectural style (Doric architecture) used for construction of this building was perfected by the two architects Iktinos and Kallikrates. However the entire building is not constructed in the Doric style of architecture but in fact is formed of various other styles as well indicative of the traditional mainland architecture form as well as the transitional architectural styles. The architects have placed the corner columns in a manner which gives it an exaggerated illusion which is found to be the main theme in the construction of the temple. The optical distortions created by them are deliberate and illustrate the architectural refinements used by the Greeks during that period. One of the most significant aspects of the building is the curvature especially that of the platform the stylobate and the entablature. Figure 5: Actual state-plan of the Parthenon opisthodomos Source: Cooper, 1996: pp. 372 The convex curvature style was first used in the Doric form of architecture almost a century ago which was then regarded as a practical solution for resolving the drainage problem of the temple platform. However in the later years during the construction of the Parthenon this style was used in the form of decorative canons (Rhodes 75). Figure 6: The Parthenon curvature Source: Rhodes (1995) pp. 77 The Temple of Hephaestus is regarded as one of the best existing monument of Doric architectural style the Parthenon which is a combination of Doric and Ionic architectural styles, was considered the finest during its time. Furthermore the end elevation of the Parthenon is one of the best known examples of the phi rectangle used in an architectural form. The elevation of the Parthenon divides into phi proportions with the colonnade and crepidoma (i.e. the base) thus resulting in the 1.62 and the entablature and pediment totaling to 1.0 (Smith 53). Sculpture The sculptures in the Parthenon are distinctly different as compared to those found in other temples such as the Zeus at the Olympia or at the Altar of Zeus at Pergamon in the sense that they are not highly stylized (Figure 7). The sculptures at the Parthenon have a youthful and refreshing feel to it and are designed in a way that radiates pure beauty. These sculptures are highly artistic and illustrate the craftsmanship of the ancient Greeks as well as successfully portray the supreme humanism endorsed by the Greek culture. The Parthenon sculptures are remarkably realistic human figures (See figure 8) which highlight the traits and characteristics of the Athenian people during the era (Jenkins 11). One of the intrinsic features of the Doric architecture of the Parthenon is the elaborate and gigantic statues found inside the building. Pheidia's giant statue of Athena which is hosted in one of the main rooms of the Parthenon was made of gold and ivory and stood at an impressive height of 40 feet (i.e approximately 12m tall). The statue was dedicated to the temple in 438 B.C. and is indicative of the significance and role of the goddess Athena to the people of Athens (Morris 18). Most of the sculptures from the Parthenon have been damaged and destroyed over the years owing to the Turkish invasion and other similar events however a significant proportion of these sculptures are still available in battered and fragmented conditions. These sculptures represent various Greek deities in human like forms i.e. either sitting or reading positions and also includes deities witnessing the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus. These sculptures are found in east well as west pediments of the Parthenon (Janson 11). Metopes The Metopes of the Parthenon (Figure 9) which are visible on the exterior of the temple comprise of a series of marble panels depicting scenes of mythical battles and various other instances of struggle (Janson 11). These Metopes were originally designed with a view to be placed alongside above the architrave resting on the columns. There were originally ninety two metopes which were carved from the scenes of Greek mythology with depiction of different events on all four sides of the Parthnenon. In the west the metopes carried illustrations from the combat between Amazons and the Greeks; on the east side of the Parthnenon the metopes illustrated a battle between gods and giants; on the north scenes from the sack of Troy were depicted while on the south the fight between Centaurs and human Laiths was illustrated. There were certain variations found in the designing of the metopes. However it was stated that it was due to the lack of time that the earliest sculptures carved differed greatly with those carved later, since the roof was to be placed over the building before the official dedication was made in 438 B.C. (Jenkins 69). Figure 10: Plan of the Parthenon: Arrangement of the metopes Source: Kleiner, 2009: pp. 113 One of the most extraordinary metopes is the one southern side of the Parthenon depicting a triumphant centaur rising up on its hind legs and exulting over the crumpled body of the Greek it has defeated (Figure 11) (Kleiner 114). Frieze The Parthenon frieze depicts a series of mythological events in the form of processions depicting different moments and reconstruction of historical episodes and events of skirmishes, assault, as well as retreats (Cooper 86). According to Rhodes (1995) the Parthenon frieze are indicative of the contemporary theories and perception of beauty among the ancient Greeks. However from a historical point of view, the frieze is known to reflect the immediate experiences of the Athenians during the Persian wars. Rhodes states that "the meaning of the Parthenon's Ionic frieze is ambiguous, perhaps intentionally so. Its nature falls somewhere between formal, emblematic processions of traditional ionic architectural structure and the narrative compositions of the Doric world" (Rhodes 89). The key themes observed in the procession of the Parthenon frieze comprise of four key elements i.e., cavalry, chariotry, processions with figures as well as on foot, and an assembly of enthroned divinities (Castriota 203), thus indicating that such depictions could be commonly found during the era and need not be particularly associated with actual historical events. There have been widespread debates regarding the mystery behind the depictions of the processions in the frieze. Some argue that the events depicted in the processions are indicative of a generic form of art and does not necessarily refer to any event in history, while others insist that the processions represent the narratives of the celebrations of the Athenians post their victory over the Persians. Conclusion: The Parthenon has been viewed as an embodiment of the magnificence of the Greek mythology and as a celebration of the Athenian culture. The building has been widely renowned and acknowledged for its elaborate designs and iconic features and is associated with beauty, art, science as well as democracy. The use of varied forms of structures and designs by the efficient architects are indicative of the subtle architectural refinements undergone by Greece over the years. The construction of this iconic temple is highly indicative of an impressive history and is hence acknowledged and referred to as a symbol of pride not only in Greece but perhaps in the entire western world as well. The structure has suffered serious damage over the years due to aggressive and hostile invasions of the Turks as well as other natural causes, and restoration work has been in progress ever since, initiated by the government of Greece. The significance of the temple as a cultural monument is recognized today and is hailed as an architectural marvel. Works Cited Beard, Mary. The Parthenon. London: Profile Books Publication, 2010. Print. Belozerskaya, Marina., Lapatin, Kenneth. Ancient Greece: Art, Architecture, and History. Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2004. Print. Castriota, David. Myth, Ethos, and Actuality: Official Art in the Fifth Century B.C. Athens. Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992. Print. Cooper , Fredrick. The Architecture. ASCA Publication, 1996. Print. ---. The Temple of Apollo Bassitas: The Sculpture. New Jersey: ASCSA Publication, 1992. Print. Hurwit, Jeffrey. The Athenian Acropolis: History, Mythology, and Archeology from the Neolithic Era to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. Print. Janson, Anthony. History of Art: The Western Tradition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Publication, 2004. Jenkins, Ian. The Parthenon Sculptures. London: British Museum Press, 2007. Print. Kleiner, Fred. Gardner's art through the ages: The western perspective. Boston: Cengage Learning Publication, 2009. Print. Morris, Ting. Ancient Greece. Black Rabbit Books Publication, 2006. Print. Neils, Jenifer. The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print. Pedley, John. Sanctuaries and the sacred in the ancient Greek world. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print. Rhodes, Robin. Architecture and Meaning of the Athenian Acropolis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Print. Sethares, William. Rhythm and Transforms. London: Springer Publication, 2007. Print. Smith, Peter. The Dynamics of Delight: Architecture and Aesthetics. London: Routledge Publication, 2003. Print. List of Figures: F Fig. # Title Source 1. The Parthenon 2. Plan of the Parthenon Pedley, John. Sanctuaries and the sacred in the ancient Greek world. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print. Pp. 69 3. The Parthenon view from north west Pedley, John. Sanctuaries and the sacred in the ancient Greek world. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print. Pp. 68 4. Preclassical naiskos (shrine) in the north peristyle of Parthenon By M. Korres qtd. in Neils, Jenifer. The Parthenon: From Antiquity to the Present. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print. Pp. 27 5. Actual state-plan of the Parthenon opisthodomos Cooper , Fredrick. The Architecture. ASCA Publication, 1996. Print. Pp. 372 6. The Parthenon curvature Rhodes, Robin. Architecture and Meaning of the Athenian Acropolis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Print. Pp. 77 7. Structure of Parthenon Jenkins, Ian. The Parthenon Sculptures. London: British Museum Press, 2007. Print. 8. Giant Marble Sculptures Jenkins, Ian. The Parthenon Sculptures. London: British Museum Press, 2007. Print. 9. Metopes of Parthenon Janson, Anthony. History of Art: The Western Tradition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Publication, 2004. Print. 10. Plan of the Parthenon: Arrangement of the metopes Kleiner, Fred. Gardner's art through the ages: The western perspective. Boston: Cengage Learning Publication. Print. Pp. 113 11. Centaur Metope Kleiner, Fred. Gardner's art through the ages: The western perspective. Boston: Cengage Learning Publication. Print. Pp. 114 Read More