SocioLinguistics and Language Ecology - Essay Example

Name Instructor Course Date SocioLingustics and Language Ecology Introduction The terms language shift and death are used as metaphors in the present sociolinguistic research. Language change is a situation where speakers of a particular language abandon, willingly or under pressure, their language to adopt another language. The new language becomes a new way of communication and socializing (Batibo 6). Typically, as it is observed, shift happens to a more prestigious one. For example, the move to the English language by many African mother tongue speakers over the years. It can affect the proficiency in mother-tongue. In situations where the shift has occurred, speakers can continue using both languages. However, after some time, like after two generations, the predominant language is set to absorb the minority language. The absorption might be caused by the needs of the people having higher opportunities and exclusion of the minority language users for they sound different. The process might be sudden or gradual. If no intervention is made to slow or stop the shifting process, language loss is going to occur. Loss of language is when a community is unable to speak a particular language. However, it is possible that the lost code is used in other places in the world. For example, Oberwart community in Austria lost its Hungarian language, but it is employed in Hungary proper. On the other hand, language death is the condition of complete extinction, that is, a language is no longer used as a way to communicate or socialize. Language death when its speakers abandon it, or the extinction of its speakers, when it becomes irrelevant in a certain domain or when its structure is not functioning (Batibo 6). Language death is attributed to an extinction of the speakers, and that there was little or no documentation of the language. Language shift, and language processes are correlated as typically a language ceases to exist when its users move to using another language. Conversely, elimination of speakers can also lead to language death, for example through terrorism genocide. Theoretical Review of Language Shift and Death Language shift and death are contentious issues. They have happened in the entire history of human existence, as long language exists. Most people perceive it as just a natural language development process. However, it is not the process of language death, loss and shift that is alarming, but it is the speed at which the world languages are dying. Studies on language show that in the world’s approximately ninety percent of 6000 languages will face extinction in the 21st century. If this rate is to be taken, it means that the language is dying faster than the loss of endangered biological species (Yagmur & Kroon 319). Language is, therefore, an endangered sociolinguistic species. For example, the South American nations which were once colonized by Britain show the highest degrees of a death of languages. So in the native Uruguay and Caribbean islands all first languages are lost. The rates are also high in Argentina and Chile. Reasonably, those nations in South America, which were never colonized have retained the 71% of their indigenous languages. Language death, loss or shift can occur in either of four ways, discussed below Sudden Language Change The language disappears abruptly due to death of the speakers, either by natural cause or genocide. The process of language loss is not followed. For example, the death of Nicoleno, a native Indian American language, and the Tasmanian Aborigines languages. Gradual Language Death Gradual language death occurs in two ways, that is top-to-bottom or bottom-to-top.in the top-to-bottom shift, the change is towards the dominant language in the minority language. This takes time and over generations. The formal settings no longer use the indigenous language, and the characteristic is that the minority language is reserved for use in domestic contexts, and this is the most common way of language death (Yagmur & Kroon 319). On the other hand, in the bottom-to-top, there is a shift from the dominant language when two languages come into contact. This also happens across some generations. The minority language takes the place of dominant language in the formal settings, which means that it is no longer reserved for domestic communication. Eventually, the majority language dies out, for example, Spanish, Italian, and French replaced Latin. Radical Language Loss Due to oppression, speakers of a certain abruptly stop using a particular language in fear of intimidation or death. This way is usually politically motivated as the users might be subjected to repression, thus forced to stop using their native language. For instance, El Salvador Native American languages. Death/Shift of Language Additionally, death or shift of language means that culture and linguistic diversity is lost too. Invaluable, fundamental knowledge might be lost too, for example, use of medicinal herbs and techniques of agriculture which are common in traditional settings (Yagmur & Kroon 336). The variety of world perspectives are lost, as well as the sense of belonging and identity. Technically speaking, it also means the death of extensive data which we can use to understand language, and how the human brain functions. Several factors contribute to death, shift or loss of language. This study focuses on three of them, which are closely tied. They include demographic factors, attitudes and values, and economic, social and political factors. Demographic Factors Demographic factors involve the size of the population and other languages that surround it. It also encompasses the geographical distribution, whether the individuals intermarry with other groups, the size of the family and how the language group might be isolated. Isolation on the geographic basis may hinder or enhance language shift. For instance, the Pentecost island Sa speakers use the geographic isolation to maintain their language. The Sa speakers rejected the Christian missionaries and schools to stick to their traditional lifestyle. They continue to live traditional self-sufficient lives that are enhanced by the currency they receive from Kava export. They also practice controlled tourism (Yagmur & Kroon 330). Nonetheless, this kind of isolation can result in poverty and low status in the society, especially if there are no monies that can supplement them. An example of this is the development and assimilation of native people on reservations in USA and Australia. These consequents to faster loss of language as the only way to fight poverty to get away from the reservations and learn the majority language. Attitudes and Values Attitudes and values are the views of the language status, attitude towards the diversity in language, and recognition of language as the determining factor of culture in a group. A language is likely to be maintained if its international status is high and is linked to positive values. There is also a mistaken ideology that if we all spoke a single language, there would be no conflicts in the world. Equally injurious to language maintenance is the mindset is known as monolingual, where people, institutions, and organizations think that in a particular society, there is only space for one language only (Musk 13). The many instances of an unwavering working diglossic and bilingual communities apparently reveal that this is not the case. Developing positive values and attitudes towards a language is vital, though they are not sufficient to keep the language from dying or shifting. Both users and non-users of a particular language need to recognize that language is essential in defining the cultural identity and belonging, in doing so, they can support economic, political and social organization with an objective of enhancing linguistic diversity. Economic, Social, and Political Factors Finally, economic, political and social factors related to the correlation of language to economic survival and benefits. Economic benefits may include accessing better-paying jobs and education facilities. Social-related reasons are the significance of the language in identity and unity of the group. For instance, if the language is perceived as not being an integral part of one’s cultural identity, a shift may happen towards another language with the feeling of one being less unified. Political reasons may be adverse (Yagmur & Kroon 319). Example, restrictions on schooling or photogravure and photocopying tools in Tibetan, or worse situations of policy decisions relating to Multilanguage teaching, and publishing reading articles in more than one language or being given translators and helpers in the legal areas (Batibo and Tsonope 48). Strategies That Can be used to Address Language Shift and Death Language death or shift can be minimized by employing a method known as language revitalization. Language revitalization, which is also known as reversing language or language revival is trying to stop or change the death of a language or to bring back to life the language that is already extinct. The parties involved in this process of saving the language from losing its vitality include linguists, communities, and governments. Language revival might mean recreating relevance of a word or resurrecting a language that was already extinct and creating a new generation of the unknown language speakers. The objective of language revival or revitalization is to increase the number of speakers of a particular language (Matthias 21). This has been effective when learners are dipped into using that language as a tool of communication. Some of the strategies that are most employed are discussed below. Master-Apprentice Strategy Master-apprentice method is a program that utilizes one-on-one immersion, mostly for people who have advanced age. It mostly involves a native speaker, who is the master and someone who is committed to knowing the language, who is the apprentice. This strategy uses already established relationships like an aunt to niece, grandparents to their grandchildren. The program encourages speaking only using the endangered language. Studies show that it works best if the learner learns how to ask questions and not just some words (Yagmur & Kroon 335). This is an inclusive strategy that incorporates the learning of native culture, and teamwork in the community. The apprentices can later help other affected fellows by becoming teachers and advocates for their community. Language Nests Language nests is also an immersion-founded method that attributes its existence to the revival of the Maori language (Bernard 50). Nests are preschool programs made to enhance education and using the language at stake by children, but can also include parents and other members of the family. Language nest is formed of the older individuals who have been speaking the language, in the education of younger children, with the aim of strengthening transmission of languages over generations. Maori in New Zealand has proved language nest to be helpful in revitalizing a language; with some other parts of the world adopting it, like Hawaiian Punana Leo system. Many areas of the world where the language is endangered have been encouraged to establish nests. Language Documentation Documenting language is one of the oldest cultures in many regions of the world (Himmelmann 187). However, language documentation has never been a consistent practice. According to Woodbury (159), it involves creating, annotating, preserving and distribution of clear language records. Rehg (3) argues that language documentation focuses on creating grammatical materials of high quality and a comprehensive dictionary founded on a complete range of textual, classes and registers, as well as recordings of audio and video, which can be accessed by the public in archival formats. Therefore, documentations can be used to trace the language and thus help in reviving Conclusion In brief, the world language diversity is under threat of death or shift. The rates of linguistic extinction are alarming, and the languages will continue to be endangered unless there is an intervention. Linguists, especially sociolinguists should take action rather than sit and watching as some languages capsize. Language is the identity of nation and culture, and with its death, we are losing an invaluable heritage. From the paper, we have realized that despite the negative trend in this study area, there is hope of saving the languages. It is important for speakers of a particular language to take pride in it, encourage communities in using their languages and promote awareness of the ramifications of language loss. Works Cited Batibo, H.M, Language Decline and Death in Africa: Causes, Consequences, and Challenges. Clevedom. Multilingual Matters, 2005: Chapter 6&7. Batibo H & Tsonope J. The state of Khoesan languages in Botswana. Mogoditshane, Botswana. Tasalls Pub. and Books, 2000: p. 48. Bernard S. The Cambridge Handbook of Language Policy. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012: p.50. Himmelmann, N. P. Linguistic Data Types and the Interface between Language Documentation and Description. Language Documentation & Conservation, 2012: 6, pp. 187–207. Matthias B. Language death: factual and theoretical explorations with special reference to East Africa. Berlin; New York. 1992: p. 21. Musk, N. Performing Bilingualism in Wales with the Spotlight on Welsh, 2003: pp. 1-25. Rehg, K. L. The Language Documentation and Conservation Initiative at the University of Hawai’i at Mānoa. In D. V. Rau & M. Florey (Eds.), Documenting and revitalizing Austronesian languages Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2007: pp. 13-24. Woodbury, Anthony C. (2011). Language documentation. In P. K. Austin and J. Sallabank (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Endangered Languages (159–186). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2011: pp. 159-186. Yagmur, K and Kroon, S. Ethnolinguistic Vitality and Language Revitalization in Bashkortostan. Journal of Multingual and Multicultural Development. 2003: 319-336. Read More