Language Variety and Influences on Language Choice - Essay Example

Language Variety Language Variety and Influences on Language Choice Introduction Funny how we take some things for granted. For instance the language we use is a veritable bundle of mysteries. But how many of us give language more than just cursory thought. Only a few of us realize that its exact origin is hazy at best. And although most of the major languages evolved from a single source, some of them do not even have traces of commonality. This is because all languages are in constant state of flux, and this continuous change is the reason for dialects and even new languages. In monolingual societies people don't have much choice. But in some bilingual and multilingual situations, the language we choose is governed by social and economic factors. What is Language At the risk of oversimplification let us ask a fundamental question: What is language "Language is a complicated business. In everyday talk, we use the word 'language' in many different ways. It isn't clear how 'language' should be defined or what the person on the street thinks it actually is!" (Downes, 1998, p.1). We tend to define language differently in different situations. We talk of the incoherent utterances of an infant, as a child's language. When we refer to the melodious intonations of some languages we refer to language in terms of aesthetics. When we talk of language in standardized correctness, we talk of language as grammar. We also talk of language as a skill, a Language Variety 2 means of communication. And we sometimes give language a physical connotation when we talk of body language. (Downes, 1998, p. 2) We also tend to define language in terms of the use to which we put it. We talk of legal language. The language used by the legal profession tends to be quite different from our everyday language. We also talk of medical parlance. That is the language used by the medical fraternity. This is again different from the language we use in everyday life. Then you have computer language which is quite distinct from any of the other languages. In a way each specialized profession it seems has its own characteristic language. Chomsky defines language as "a set of very specific universal principles which are intrinsic properties of the human mind and part of our species' genetic endowment" (Chomsky. 1986: 15 ff. as cited in Downes, 1998, p.17). While that may indeed be the best definition of language, the definition of language needs to be examined from a sociolinguistic perspective. What is Sociolinguistics "The most obvious definition of sociolinguistics is that it is the study of language in society" (Schmitt, 2002, p. 150). Schmitt goes on to say that most sociolinguistic studies are basically descriptive, but focus on achieving "scientific objectivity", even when these studies involve intricate influences that society has on language. Sociolinguistic studies also take into consideration "social aspects of language" in a pragmatic way, explaining social influences as accurately as possible. (Schmitt, 2002, p.150) Language Variety 3 A Sociolinguistic Definition of Language Sociolinguistics tends to define language as what the members of a specific society speak. However they also take into consideration the fact that a society may have more than one language or many dialects of the same language, and therefore view language with the conviction that it is not something that is independent of society. (Wardhaugh, 2002, p. ix) Purpose of Language "The notion of discourse is the conceptual link between language and society, looking upwards on the one hand to social structures and cultural meanings and downwards to the nitty-gritty of words and grammar - lexicogrammar - on the other" (Bartlett, n.d, p.113 ). (Bartlett, n.d, p.113) argues that language is a "socially motivated construct" because of what it helps to do. Any language basically serves two purposes: it facilitates interaction and serves as a means of communication. The Common Components of All Languages All languages have three common components. There is a "phonological component" which is in fact a guide as to how words and sentences are pronounced. Then there is the "syntactical component, which is nothing but the grammar that governs a particular language. And finally, there is the "semantic component" which is the meaning that words and sentences convey. (Searle, 2006, p.3) Language Variety 4 History of Language Humans began to speak long before they began to write. Whatever form that writing took, it was only after that that we have some indication of man's ability to communicate. But none of these writings is an indication of how humans first learned to handle the subjective connection between words and meanings. "We simply do not know how language originated. We do know that spoken language developed well before written language" (Yule, 1996, p.xv). The history of the English language is a history by itself; its origins complex at the least and contradictory at times. However there is a general consensus is that it is an Anglo-Frisian language. The language was originally brought to south-eastern Great Britain sometime in the 5th century. Germanic tribes from northwest Germany and Jutland are said to have been responsible for this. The introduction of English to Great Britain may have been even earlier than the 5th century. This may have even happened sometime in the 2nd century. It was the practice of the Romans, during their time of global domination, to recruit auxiliary troops who were predominantly of Germanic origin and post them throughout their empire. These troops were stationed in Britain also. And this explains the Germanic influence. The Old English that evolved as a result of this Germanic influence was to again evolve because of the influence an invasion of Germanic tribes of Scandinavian origin and also by the subsequent invasion by the Normans. As a result of the Norman Conquest the influence of Language Variety 5 French and Latin on old English was more than the influence of the Germanic languages. (English Language, 2006) English as we know it today is a "pluricentric language". It has spawned numerous versions and has more than one standard. Even within the place of its birth there is more than one version of the language: You have Cockney and regional dialects. These differences come not only from word usage but also because of difference in accents. However there is a Standard English in England which has a definite grammar and pronunciation. Standard English is the accepted norm as to what constitutes correct English. It is also the standard for the language's grammar and the way in which its words are pronounced. Received Pronunciation - RP as it is sometimes referred to - is the standard for spoken English. (Definition, 2006) However while there is a Standard English for Great Britain, this standard does not apply to the different forms of the language as they are used and spoken in different parts of the world. This is not surprising as English is used and spoken by more people in other parts of the world than in Great Britain. In different parts of the world where English is used, the language has morphed into regional dialects. In Canada for instance there is Newfoundland English and the English used by Anglo-Quebecers. In the United States there is American English and then you have African American Vernacular English. Then there is the English that is used in the south of the country. Language Variety 6 Diversity in English stems not only from regional adaptations, but also changes with social strata. In some societies the vocabulary used, speech patterns, grammar and so on are specific to certain strata. This not the same as differences that stem from regional influence. Language Variety in England Identity is inalienable. This is why we tend to cling onto our identity even decades after relocating within a country or to a new country. And an important component of this identity is what we speak and how we speak it - "our accent and dialect". This is true even within England itself. Often you don't have to be an expert in phonetics to be able to identify a person's place of origin based on manner of speech. People tend to speak the same way as the people they grew up with. This is why one still hears of terms such as 'Geordie', 'Cockney', 'Jock', 'Taffy', 'Scouse', being used to identify people of different regions. It is tempting to believe that the Standard English of England is the English that the majority of the population uses. But the fact is that only 7-12 per cent of the people of this country use Standard English. Another curious fact is that "English Standard English" is different from "Scottish Standard English", which is again different from "Irish Standard English". (Language Variety, n.d) Language Variety 7 Influence of Society on What We Speak Blame it on society. It's the society that we live in that determines the English we speak and the way we speak it. It is society that is responsible for the several dialects of English within and without the country. How does this happen Language - any language - is in constant state of flux. And changes that occur in one geographic location spread to other locations over time. Such changes can be in the form of word coinage or language usage. Sometimes however changes that take place become localized for several reasons. And over time these changes become an intrinsic part of the language used in that geographic region, while being alien to other regions. This accounts for dialect differences between regions. In England for instance, often the spread of localized changes, to adjoining regions, was arrested because of natural barriers in the form of Fens - the wetlands of the past of the counties of Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire and Norfolk in eastern England. The transport facilities of the day made crossing the Fens either impossible or extremely difficult. All languages are said to have their origin in the language referred to as Indo-European, a language that was used in Eurasia some six thousand years ago. However as much of localized changes in language did not spread to distant regions eventually gave rise to such diverse languages as Albanian, Bengali, Germanic, Hindi, Persian, Sinhalese and most of the European languages such as Russian, Lithuanian, Greek, Italian and Welsh. (Language Variety, n.d) Language Variety 8 Influences on Language Choice In a monolingual community the dialect one uses is determined by the origin of their region. An example is the dialects of English that are used within England itself. However in bilingual and multilingual societies, the language of choice depends on several factors. Characteristic of bilingual and multilingual societies is that some portion of these societies uses more than one language and that there are cultural, social, economic, personal and other factors that influence the languages-used decision process. Also characteristic of such societies is that those who use more than one language alternate between these languages often even borrowing words and phrases from each other. One reason that influences the adoption of English as an additional language is the need for a medium of communication in an international situation. This however does not preclude its use even in intranational situations. With the increasing influence of globalization, the need for a common language for international communication becomes inevitable. And as English is one of the most widely languages, it is the principal choice in much of the non-English speaking world. Knowledge of English gives such people the means for "wider communication" In some countries like India, Philippines and Uganda/Kenya English is one of the official languages. In all these countries are multilingual and need a common language even to facilitate intranational communication. In a country like India that has "1,652 mother tongues" only a common language like English can make communication possible in politics and business. Language Variety 9 Other significant factors that compel populations to acquire knowledge of English are increased employment opportunity and the feeling that it is a symbol of higher education and status. People who lived in cities rather than in villages had the opportunity to learn English. This was because of government policy, or because it was the medium of education. Schools in cities offered English medium education or at the least offered English as an optional subject. And knowledge is commonly associated not just with better employment opportunities, but also with better paid jobs. (Lanteigne, 2004) Value Society Places on Literacy Skill Ask any business person what the most valuable asset of the business is and almost invariably the answer will be "people". This is the knowledge economy and literacy is its foundation. In the world of today without literacy, managing even routine chores will be impossible. And this is true what ever the position an individual's position is in society. Knowledge is the primary source of value creation in business. This is why the demand for skilled labour is increasing faster than supply. Most of the developed and developing countries have recognized this fact and are enacting policy that lays emphasis to achieving this goal. As the size of the knowledge-based workforce is shrinking in comparison not only are some governments raising retirement age, they are also facilitating upgrading of skills and knowledge. (Innovation, 2003) Language Variety 10 "In the new knowledge-based economy people and organizations are linked in ever more intricate and complex ways. Learning and working are conflating more and more" (Kilpatrick, Hamilton & Falk, 2001). In today's work environment it is difficult to tell where learning ends and work begins. Many people believe that the two are the same. And learning and working are both integral parts of an individual's social identity. (Kilpatrick, Hamilton & Falk, 2001) As a consequence of globalization and advancements in technology the need for highly literate, skilled and multitalented labour force is continuously expanding. This makes continuous learning and development increasingly important. Impact on Individuals Who Do Not Adequately Develop These Skills "You are what you wear" and "you are what you drive" are clichs. In vogue is the fact that an individual's education is his or her identity. At as very fundamental level, without adequate literacy, supporting self and family are almost impossible. End products of businesses are no longer labour intensive; they are knowledge intensive. Take something as simple as a transistor; its material content is about two percent and its labour content almost negligible. Therefore mere muscle without adequate literacy is of little value. Low literacy is synonymous to low income, low healthcare, and lack of social identity. On the other hand as literacy levels increase so too incomes, job mobility, better healthcare and higher living standards. Literacy has become so important that United Nations Development Language Variety 11 Program keeps policy makers throughout the world informed of Human Development Index, which is its measure of literacy levels. (Innovation, 2003) Development of English in UK and Abroad English is the first language of approximately 354 million people. And it is the second language of 150 million and 1.5 billion people. This makes English the most used language in the world. It is the international language of communication, entertainment, science, business and the link-language between nations. It is also one of the official languages of the United Nations since its inception in 1945. Although Mandarin Chinese and Hindi are spoken by larger native populations than English, English is the primary/ secondary language to a greater number of people. Just as change is the only constant factor in every sphere of life, change is also part of every language. English too has gone through changes over the centuries. Since the first influence of Germanic on England's English, there have been subsequent waves of influence in the eighth, ninth and eleventh centuries. Apart from outside influence, English evolved indigenously and regionally giving rise to its several forms. Today there are more English speaking people outside England, than in England itself. Just as the British Empire began to spread across the globe, so too did its language. As a consequence a country like India has more people who speak or comprehend English than any other country in the world. India is closely followed by China. (English Language, 2006) Language Variety 12 Conclusion The British Empire may have reduced in size, but not so British influence. English has taken roots in so many parts of the world that it has become the most significant language of communication between nations. And, globalization has made this common thread between nations stronger. As a consequence of this, knowledge of English - in any of its myriad forms - is often the yardstick by which literacy is measured. It also adds significance to an individual's identity. Language Variety 13 References Bartlett, Tom. (n.d) .Social Justice: Anthropology, Peace and Human Rights. Retrieved November 27, 2006, from http://journals.gmu.edu/index.php/socialjustice/article/viewFile/6/6 Definition: Standard English. (2006). Retrieved November 27, 2006, from http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/standard-english.html Downes, William. (1998). Language and Society. UK: Cambridge University Press. English Language. (2006). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved November 27, 2006, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language Innovation and Learning for Canadians. (2003). Retrieved November 27, 2006, from http://dsp-psd.communication.gc.ca/Collection/RH64-25-2003E.pdf Kilpatrick, Sue., Hamilton, Vivienne., Falk, Ian. (2001). Issues of Quality Learning: Apprenticeships and traineeships in rural and remote Australia. Retrieved November 27, 2006, from http://www.crlra.utas.edu.au/files/discussion/2001/D4-2001.pdf Language Variety in England. (n.d). Retrieved November 27, 2006, from http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Content_store/Sample_chapter/0631218149/Trudgill.pdf Lanteigne, Betty Fay. (2004).Task Descriptions of Non-Western English Language Use with Language Variety 14 Cultural Evaluations and Discussions of Language Choice. PhD Thesis. Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved November 27, 2006, from http://dspace.lib.iup.edu:8080/dspace/bitstream/1938/4/1/Test+WP+Dissertation.pdf Schmitt, Norbert. (2002). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. USA: Oxford University Press. Searle, John. R. (2006). What is Language: Some Preliminary Remarks. Retrieved November 27, 2006, from http://socrates.berkeley.edu/jsearle/whatislanguage.pdf Wardhaug, Ronald. (2002). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. USA: Blackwell Publishing Yule, George. (1996). The Study of Language. UK: Cambridge University Press. Read More