Speech Milieu of the Young Infant Biologically Relevant Beacons - Research Paper Example

Language Development - Psychology/Linguistics Introduction Language development is a term used to refer to the process by which a person starts to acquire language through learning it or simply by mimicry. The process starts at the early stage of human life. It is perceived that the language moves from simple to complex. Infants have no language1. At the age of four months, babies can discriminate speech sounds and read lips. Typically, language begins as mare recall of simple words that have no associated meaning. However as the child grows, the words acquire meaning and there is a connection between the words being formed. When one gets older, they acquire new meanings as well as new associations between the words being formed. In addition the vocabulary increases too as the person learns more words that are new. According to studies, infants use the bodies, preverbal vocalizations and vocal cries to communicate their dispositions, wants, and needs2. Despite the fact that starts to vocalize and later ends up verbalizing at different rates and ages, they learn their first language without their parents’ instructions3. Research has revealed that language learning begins in the uterus whereby the foetus can identify with the sound patterns and speech of its mothers voice. This paper seeks to evaluate the role of motherese (child-directed speech) in first language acquisition by evaluating what different writers say. Motherese most often is seen as an environmental force to the child’s learning of first language as it is seen external source of input to an infant. In addition, it is also tied to innateness. The trait is not learned and mothers do not need to take classes to learn the speech4. Motherese is the speaking style use by mothers as well as caretakers cross the world to address their infants. The style is used to address the toddlers aged between eighteen to twenty four months. When given a choice the style is preferred over adult directed speech. To begin with, the caretaker provides the objects names to the child’s vocalizations. As time goes by, the mother begins to request for labels and by the time the child is one and a half years, the mother able to request and label at the same rate thus establishing dialog5. The caretaker as well as the mother helps develop the child’s speech by distinctly differentiating between unacceptable as well as acceptable responses hence ensuring that the verbalizations of the child are hardly direct imitations but rather responses, which could fit in specific slots within the dialog6. Moreover, for the mother to help the child learn quickly, she provides consistency for instance the rate of confirmation, the duration devoted to dialog as well as the child’s probability to reciprocating. In addition, the mother makes sure she modifies her speech and this is called motherese. According to studies, mothers use linguistic alterations as well as paralinguistic variations because the manner of presentation is deemed to be of paramount than the content of conversation. It is evident from past researches that of mothers and caretakers produce modifications by using variety loudness as well as pitches and typically the pitch of the mother is usually higher than that of adult-to-adult conversations7. A number of different languages are seen to present this pitch contour though a number of variations are noted. It is apparent that the infants respond to intonation patterns even before they learn the language8. Besides, they prefer high and variable pitch. Furthermore, the caretaker and the mother modify their timing as well as rhythm. It is evident that the duration of vowels is usually longer than in the adult-to-adult conversation9. In addition, there are relatively longer pauses between the utterances. The kind of rhythm is also evident in the singing mothers of the deaf children. As compared to the adult to adult conversation, motherese shows a higher pitch particularly at the greater end such as the lexical simplification which is characterized by diminutive as well as the syllable reduplication or constant verb syllable repetition10. Additionally there are shorter an less complex utterances indicate, minimal fluency, limited concrete vocabulary, a lot of repetition as well as paraphrasing and more contextual support, very restricted set of semantic relations as well as more questions and directives. It is apparent that with infants the conversational style is short and even shorter with toddlers as the adult utterances spoken are less11. When the child is almost one year, that is the second half of the first year, the mother or the caretaker reduces the duration of her utterances12. This is positively linked with the child’s enhanced receptive language skills at eighteen months of age. The mother contributes to the process of learning the language in which the child uses what she or he knows to decode more mature language by ensuring that they maintain a semantic syntactic correspondence. This is also referred to as ‘bootstrapping’. For instance using motherese, it is easier for the child to decode the utterances of the mother or caretaker. Evidently, directed speech from the caretaker or mother and the child adapts with time. In addition, the language of the child matures. This is because the motherese is well tuned to the child’s level. Initially, the rate of change in the language level is usually slow. However, with age it speeds up. The length as well as the complexity of the utterances of the mother most change at the 20 and the twenty-seven months of age. This is also the period when there is a remarkable language change in the child. However, at any given time the syntax is mostly consistent. Moreover, the infant directed speech is also altered at the phonetic level. According to studies, these alterations are very important to helping the infant learn the first language13. In a study carried out recently, a number of women were recorded talking to their infants’ age two months and to another adult in Sweden, Russia as well as the United States. The mother used the same vowels at both settings. Later their results were analysed and it was found out that the phonetic units in children are exaggerated. The exaggeration is an important aspect as it distinguishes the speech for infants and highlights the important parameters used in the native language14. This helps the child in learning the dimensions used in their native language. In a much more recent study, the language-delayed children indicate remarkable improvements in measures of language and speech after listening exaggerated phonetic differences of speech altered by the computer15. The study indicated that the modifications made by the mother when addressing an infant plays a major role in helping the child learn their first language. Undeniably, the motherese and language input to which an infant is subject to be greatly influenced by the characteristics of the child. The kind of toys the child is presented usually has an effect on the kinds of language produced by the mother. In addition, simplifications to language by adults logically must reflect cues from the child, although parents are not aware of their alterations, as they are not consciously trying to teach a language. According to the child’s feedback and participation, speech not adapted by the child is also not processed16. It is evident that children play an important role in the choice of the utterances they want to respond to. The lack of child’s response informs the parent that the child is not following the communication pattern and therefore the mother changes the linguistics. The mother’s speech pragmatic aspects are linked to the expressive or referential style of the child. This is because the expressive child tends to participate more in a conversation whereas the referential child only names frequently. Therefore, the referential children mothers tend to use words that are more descriptive as well as make more utterances at any given situation as compared to the mothers of expressive children. According to some scholars, the importance of motherese has been disregarded as it is believed to be influent as well as ungrammatical and hence does not qualify as being of meaningful input for they believe that meaningful is of paramount in first language acquisition. Besides, studies indicate that not all children require a phonologically as well as syntactically simplified input to acquire first language17. This is due to the fact that motherese though quite widespread, it is not a universal aspect across the various cultures across the world18. In addition, there exists a great variation in the styles of social interaction and the form of motherese across different cultures. It is however possible that these cultures that do not use motherese to help their children acquire first language compensate for it by making sure they simplify the language development in other ways for instance emphasizing the everyday communal life. The child’s linguistic development rate is directly linked to the child’s input complexity. The major vital factor to motherese speech is not what is directly said to the child but rather is the content19. According to studies children who learn the fastest are the children a substantial amount of acknowledgement as well as encouragement from their own utterances. This is because the children who showed a rapid linguistic development were the children who their mothers or caretakers asked them a variety of questions and in addition gave extensive replies to their children questions. Conclusion Encompassed in this essay is an evaluation of the role of motherese (child-directed speech) in first language acquisition. In conclusion, there is so much that needs to be learned about first language acquisition. Basically, it is right to say that motherese is of importance to a child’s acquisition of the first language irrespective of whether it completely aids in the development of language or not. The major objective of the motherese is not to teach the first language. However, as indicated in the essay, motherese enhances the development of the first language by offering the children an opportunity to practice, improve as well as develop their language capabilities. As apparent in the essay the child’s efforts and influences combined with those of the mother or caregiver produces an appropriate relationship for the feedback, input, practise and acquisition of the language. Motherese also helps the child in the comprehension and acquisition of the language especially the rules that are largely unpredictable universal grammar principles. However certain factors such as the socioeconomic background, where the toys that are deemed to enhance language utilization are hard to get, hinders thee impacts of motherese to first language acquisition irrespective of whether it is in effect or not. In addition, the positions in the family, birth order as well as the siblings also have a great impact on the development of first language. This is because single children have an opportunity to communicate with adults as compared to the children who have many siblings and they therefore develop their language faster. Moreover, the mothers’ mother tongue, ethnicity as well as the hours a parent spends at work are among other factors that affect the effects of motherese on children’s first language acquisition. Lastly as discussed in the essay, for a child to benefit completely from the impacts of motherese, it is necessary that he or she boast the maximum conditions. If this is never achieved as indicated by many individuals, motherese may not be as beneficial as it should but regardless it will still assist the children in the acquisition of the first language. References Choi, S., & Gopnik, A. 1995. Early acquisition of verbs in Korean: A cross-linguistic study. Journal of Child Language, vol. 22, pp. 297-529. Cooper, R., A., and Richard N. 1989. The Language Environment of the Young Infant: Implications for Early Perceptual Development. Special Issue: Infant Perceptual Development. Canadian Journal of Psychology, vol. 2, pp. 247-265 Fernald, A. 1994. Human maternal vocalizations to infants as biologically relevant signals: An evolutionary perspective. In P. Bloom (Ed.), Language acquisition: Core readings. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 181-195 Papousek, M., Hanus, S. D. 1991. The Meanings of Melodies in Motherese in Tone and Stress Languages. Infant behavior and development, vol. 14, pp. 415-440. Ramscar, M. and Gitcho, N. 2007. Developmental change and the nature of learning in childhood. Trends in Cognitive Science, vol. 11, no. 7, pp. 274-279. Read More

According to studies, mothers use linguistic alterations as well as paralinguistic variations because the manner of presentation is deemed to be of paramount than the content of conversation. It is evident from past researches that of mothers and caretakers produce modifications by using variety loudness as well as pitches and typically the pitch of the mother is usually higher than that of adult-to-adult conversations7. A number of different languages are seen to present this pitch contour though a number of variations are noted.

It is apparent that the infants respond to intonation patterns even before they learn the language8. Besides, they prefer high and variable pitch. Furthermore, the caretaker and the mother modify their timing as well as rhythm. It is evident that the duration of vowels is usually longer than in the adult-to-adult conversation9. In addition, there are relatively longer pauses between the utterances. The kind of rhythm is also evident in the singing mothers of the deaf children. As compared to the adult to adult conversation, motherese shows a higher pitch particularly at the greater end such as the lexical simplification which is characterized by diminutive as well as the syllable reduplication or constant verb syllable repetition10.

Additionally there are shorter an less complex utterances indicate, minimal fluency, limited concrete vocabulary, a lot of repetition as well as paraphrasing and more contextual support, very restricted set of semantic relations as well as more questions and directives. It is apparent that with infants the conversational style is short and even shorter with toddlers as the adult utterances spoken are less11. When the child is almost one year, that is the second half of the first year, the mother or the caretaker reduces the duration of her utterances12.

This is positively linked with the child’s enhanced receptive language skills at eighteen months of age. The mother contributes to the process of learning the language in which the child uses what she or he knows to decode more mature language by ensuring that they maintain a semantic syntactic correspondence. This is also referred to as ‘bootstrapping’. For instance using motherese, it is easier for the child to decode the utterances of the mother or caretaker. Evidently, directed speech from the caretaker or mother and the child adapts with time.

In addition, the language of the child matures. This is because the motherese is well tuned to the child’s level. Initially, the rate of change in the language level is usually slow. However, with age it speeds up. The length as well as the complexity of the utterances of the mother most change at the 20 and the twenty-seven months of age. This is also the period when there is a remarkable language change in the child. However, at any given time the syntax is mostly consistent. Moreover, the infant directed speech is also altered at the phonetic level.

According to studies, these alterations are very important to helping the infant learn the first language13. In a study carried out recently, a number of women were recorded talking to their infants’ age two months and to another adult in Sweden, Russia as well as the United States. The mother used the same vowels at both settings. Later their results were analysed and it was found out that the phonetic units in children are exaggerated. The exaggeration is an important aspect as it distinguishes the speech for infants and highlights the important parameters used in the native language14.

This helps the child in learning the dimensions used in their native language. In a much more recent study, the language-delayed children indicate remarkable improvements in measures of language and speech after listening exaggerated phonetic differences of speech altered by the computer15. The study indicated that the modifications made by the mother when addressing an infant plays a major role in helping the child learn their first language.

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