Influence of Sport Science Disciplines in Basketball - Essay Example

Influence of Sport Science Disciplines in Basketball I. Introduction Sport science disciplines use science and technology to gain knowledge on how to design and improve training programs and exercises for athletes that will enhance their performance attitudes and behaviours (Ziv and Lidor, 2010). The knowledge they offer can also reduce the risks of injuries and fatalities, while helping injured athletes recuperate much faster (Cortes, Morrison, Van Lunen and Onate, 2012). Sport science disciplines come from a combination of several general fields. This paper focuses on biomechanics, physiology, and psychology, because they have significantly contributed to the development of basketball as a science-based sport (Domire and Challis, in press; Guttikonda, 2010). Biomechanics, physiology, and psychology show the importance of science to taking care of the health and boosting the exercise and competition performances of basketball players. II. Sport Science Disciplines’ Influence on Basketball A. Biomechanics Biomechanics is essential to successful basketball players because it helps understand how the human body can perform sports tasks more efficiently and effectively (Domire and Challis, in press). 1. Jumping and Landing Biomechanics generate knowledge about the most effective jumps and lands for athletes. Jumping acts compose different defensive and offensive actions that basketball players perform in practices and games. Ziv and Lidor (2010) reviewed 15 observational and 11 experimental studies to understand how female and male basketball players perform and improve their vertical jump shots. They learned that vertical jump values ranged from 22 to 48 cm for female players and 40 to 75 cm for male players, where differences lie on testing protocols and skill levels. In addition, short plyometric training sessions were part of the strength and conditioning programs that improved vertical jump performances. In another study, Domire and Challis (in press) examined the relationship between maximum height jumps and minimising jump time. Jump time pertains to the time needed to create a jump, while the player is still on the ground. A decrease in jump time may reduce jump height, but it can improve successful jump shots, if it reduces the ability of opponents to anticipate and block these shots (Domire and Challis, in press). Domire and Challis (in press) used a direct dynamics model to investigate squat jump performance. It ran two simulations where Mode 1 had a fixed initial, while Mode 2 chose the starting squat configuration and sequence of muscle activations. Findings showed that adding time for Mode 1 slightly decreased jump height and moderately saved time, while Mode 2 showed that time could be significantly saved, if jumps were done in a more upright position. As a simulation, however, this study may not have considered other factors, such as counter-movement jumps and the role of different shoes in vertical jump performance (Blache et al., 2011). Besides jumping, landing is an important field of study in biomechanics because poor landing can lead to injury. Cortes et al. (2012) studied landing techniques for twenty female soccer players. Though they studied players from a different sports field, basketball players use these landing techniques that soccer athletes use: forefoot and rearfoot during sidestep cutting and pivoting tasks. Findings showed that participants used a knee valgus position for both techniques, which could increase the possibility of injury. In addition, the rearfoot technique may be more harmful than the forefoot technique because the former showed higher posterior ground reaction forces, at initial contact, and diminished knee flexion. Moreover, athletes who used forefoot landing technique had possibly greater risk for injury, throughout the pivot task, than the rearfoot, while rearfoot landing technique resulted to a more extended and abducted location at the knee and higher peak knee adductor moment during the sidestep task. They concluded that, since different tasks change landing mechanics, these factors must be considered, when determining anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) prevention programs. They recommended that higher trunk flexion will ease increased hip and knee flexion that can protect players from ACL injuries (Cortes et al., 2012). Another study focused on energy dissipation that happens during landing techniques. Yeow, Lee and Goh (2011) explained that hip, knee and ankle joints affect the process of shock absorption through the mechanism of energy dissipation in the joint muscles. They determined lower extremity energy dissipation strategies and how they differ between single-leg and double-leg landing techniques. They examined these differences in sagittal and frontal planes. They recruited ten recreation athletes to conduct double-leg and single-leg landing from 0.60-m height. Findings showed that the hip and the knee were the main parts involved in energy dissipation in the sagittal plane for double landing techniques; for single landing techniques, the hip and the ankle became the main contributors for energy dissipation. For frontal plane and double-leg landing techniques, the hip significantly contributed to energy dissipation, but it was the knee for frontal plane and single-leg landing techniques. They recommended double-leg landing techniques because they result to lower frontal plane loading at the knee joint, which decreases knee injury risk. For single-leg landing, wearing a knee brace may reduce the risk of frontal plane joint motions that occurs when landing (Yeow, Lee and Goh, 2011). 2. Shooting Biomechanics can examine and recommend activities and techniques that can achieve effective shooting. Okazaki, Hugo and Rodacki (2012) studied the impact of higher distance on basketball jump shot outcome. They filmed ten male elite basketball players and analysed kinematic variables, as the latter conducted close (2.8 m), intermediate (4.6 m) and far distance (6.4 m) shots. Findings showed that shot accuracy dropped from 59% for close shots to 37% for far distance shots. Ball release and release angle also decreased from close to far distance. However, ball release velocity increased as distance increased too. They learned that players employed the following strategies when shooting from afar: (1) higher centre of mass horizontal velocity toward to the basket; (2) more vertical velocity to increase jump height; (3) elbow amplitude; (4) more elbow extension velocity; (5) increased wrist flexion velocity; and (6) higher angular velocity at ball release around the shoulder, elbow, and wrist joints (Okazaki et al., 2012). Okubo and Hubbard (2006) used a three-dimensional dynamic model to study the motion of basketball shots that contact the rim, backboard and bridge. They included different scenarios and slipping and non-slipping motions. They learned that free throw shots with more backspin, decreased inflation pressures, and underhand release conditions can enhance capture percentages. Several more studies investigate the biomechanics of successful jump shots. Mullineaux and Uhl (2010) studied joint kinematics and coordination-variability between missed and effective (swishes) free throw performances. Their sampling included fifteen collegiate basketball players (6 females and 9 males) who performed 20 free throws. Mullineaux and Uhl (2010) chose three misses and three swishes randomly from each participant. Findings showed that ball release speed was lower for misses than swishes; release positions had little effect on outcomes; and elbow angular velocity affected wrist angular velocity via velocity-dependent-torques. They concluded that coordination between the elbow and wrist angles may be a critical control factor that affects successful free-throw shots for experienced basketball players (Mullineaux and Uhl, 2010). de Oliveira, Oudejan and Beek (2006) added that the right timing also affected effective jump shots. Their participants included those with high and low shooting style and who performed 50 jump shots. Findings showed that successful movements are affected by the late collection of optical information. 3. Ball Trajectory Studying the different intra- and inter-individual differences that impact ball trajectory is also a contribution of biomechanics to basketball. Uchida, Mizuguchi, Honda and Kanosue (2014) studied how changes in video replay speed affected spatial visual search strategy and capability to determine free throw success for novice and experienced players. Findings showed that experienced players looked at the lower part of the players’ body, when seeing a normal speed video, compared to novices. Novices focused on ball trajectory, while experienced players predicted successful or failed free throw shows through studying spatial cues from body position of the shooter and temporal cues. The position of the shooter, ball trajectory and timing affect perceptions of free throw outcomes. Al-Abood et al. (2002) determined if two types of verbal instructions affected free throw performances of 16 novice players. These instructions focused on either movement form (movement dynamics) or movement effects (such as ball trajectory in connection to the basket). In addition, these players observed skilled models who performed tasks, in order to understand the visual presentation of task performances. Findings showed that the movement-effects players had more impact on outcome scores at pre- and post-test, which indicated that they focused on more information outside the body. Al-Abood et al. (2002) concluded that observing models who focused on external movement effects can boost free throw outcomes. Other studies explored the role of visual factors in affecting ball trajectories. Viggiano et al. (2014) focused on visual distracters that may impact ball trajectories. They investigated if the position of a second player who is in front of the shooting player (but too distant to physically interfere with the shooting) can affect the ball trajectory and jump trajectory for a basket shot. Findings showed that the placement of the second player visually distracted shooting players by affecting the latter’s jump direction and the entry location of the ball. Oudejans, van de Langenberg and Hutter (2002) studied if the time of seeing the ball affected ball release. The four viewing conditions were no vision, full vision, early vision and late vision. Findings showed that late vision was as good as full-vision shooting, while early-vision hindered performance. They concluded that continuous viewing of visual information affected final shooting movements until ball release. 4. Movement Several studies offered insight about body movement organisations and patterns. Liu, Chiang and Mayer-Kress (2006) studied how three basketball players with different levels of skills organised multi-joint movements for clean shots. They learned that upper joint relations showed variability compared to lower joint relations. They concluded that lower joint relations provided basic support and strength, which entails consistent movement pattern, while the upper limb joint movements impact performance accuracy. Like Mullineaux and Uhl (2010), they stressed the importance of elbow and wrist movements to clean basketball shots. Bartlett, Wheat and Robins (2007) determined if studying movement variability theoretically and empirically improved optimal movements. They learned that elite athletes cannot replicate identical successful movement patterns despite training. They stressed that movement variability is a product of the neuromuscular system and functionality. Schmidt (2012) studied movement pattern recognition for free throws. Their findings showed that movement patterns generally come from individual configurations and skill levels. Lonsdale and Tam (2008) confirmed from their study on elite players that those who followed their behavioural sequences were more successful in their free throws. B. Physiology 1. Energy Requirements Studying energy requirements provides knowledge on proper diet, in response to the high physical activity levels of athletes. Santos et al. (2008) and Meyer, O Connor and Shirreffs (2007) learned that many athletes do not consume enough nutrients or overconsume other vitamins and minerals. They stressed that not meeting energy requirements can have negative effects on both health and performance levels. Nikic et al. (2014) compared nutrient intakes between elite junior basketball and nonathletes. Findings showed that players had lower protein and carbohydrate intake and higher energy intake, while there was low intake of vitamin A, zinc, niacin and calcium for both groups. They recommended proper nutrition for athletes, particularly given their high physical activity levels and specific nutritional needs. Meyer et al. (2007) determined that young athletes need to consume the right diet to preserve health and maximise optimal performance and growth. They stressed that adults and adolescents have particular nutritional needs, and that, even if the principles of sports nutrition are the same for these age groups, significant differences arise when it comes to energy expenditure, fuel utilisation, and thermoregulation during performance and exercise. They underscored that young athletes need greater protein per kilogram of body weight to meet growth requirements, higher calcium needs, greater metabolic cost of movement per kilogram of body mass, and more fat use during exercise. They added that sweat electrolyte losses vary across age groups, and that dehydration is more harmful to children than to adults. Eating the right food before exercise can have beneficial performance effects too. Gentle, Love, Howe and Black (2014) learned from their study that protein and carbohydrate (PRO/CHO) consumption 90 minutes before exercise decreased the level of creatine kinase (CK) (which can result to muscle damage) for well-trained basketball players, but it led to nausea too. The study showed how preconditioning through diet is also essential to optimal performance and health. The right pre-competition diet, nevertheless, may vary across sports and individual needs. Regarding practical strategies for measuring energy needs, Silva et al. (2013) confirmed that energy intake (EI) must meet total energy expenditure (TEE) to avoid negative health and sports performance consequences. They measured the TEE of elite junior basketball players of a Portuguese Team using the doubly labeled water (DLW) method. Their findings showed that physical activity level ranged from 2.2 to 3.7 with a mean value of 2.8 + 0.4. Total energy expenditure from the DLW (17,598 + 3,298 kJ.d-1) was considerably underestimated by EI (11,274 + 2,567 kJ.d-1), while no differences were noted through the DRI (17,008 + 3,206 kJ.d-1). Their study contributed to learning that EI underestimated TEE for junior basketball players, and that the DRI method is not accurate in measuring individual energy requirements. The study indicates the significance of having accurate measures for EI. Holway and Spriet (2011) recommended using basic anthropometric measurements to assist nutrition practitioners in monitoring and evaluating body composition periodically. They advised the use of a body mass scale and a urine specific gravity refractometer to determine athletes who are prone to dehydration. These measures are essential to ensuring that athletes are meeting required energy needs. 2. Supplementation Another contribution of physiology is its continuous study on the efficacy and safety of nutritional supplement for athletes, where some studies showed several benefits on health and performance. Schulpis et al. (2007) studied the impact of α-Tocopherol (α-T) supplementation on S100B elevated serum levels for basketball players during training. Their findings showed that total antioxidant status (TAS) was higher for groups with α-T addition, while creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and S100B protein levels were significantly lower. The study concluded that α-T supplementation can decrease S100B’s increased release that training may be stimulating. Smith, Fukuda, Kendall and Stout (2010) used a randomised, single-blinded, placebo-controlled design study to determine the impacts of a pre-workout supplement (which combined caffeine, creatine, and amino acids) during three weeks of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on aerobic and anaerobic performance. Their study involved 24 moderately-trained athletes. Their findings showed that the pre-workout supplement, combined with HIIT, improved VO2max (to measure cardiovascular fitness), critical velocity (CV), and lean body mass (LBM). Three weeks of HIIT alone also improved anaerobic running performance, VO2max and body composition. Other studies cautioned against the use and abuse of supplementation because they asserted that studies did not find any causation between the former and better health and performance. Cholewa, Poprzęcki, Zajac and Waskiewicz (2008) did not find a significant relationship between Vitamin C supplementation and blood antioxidant status and VO2max in basketball players. Powers, Nelson and Larson-Meyer (2011) reviewed randomised and well-controlled studies and asserted that they did not provide strong evidence that antioxidant supplements and vitamin D supplementation created important health and performance benefits. They even cautioned that supplementation can create adverse health effects, if athletes do not need these extra vitamins and minerals in their bodies. Suzic Lazic et al. (2011) learned that many athletes consumed supplements without proper assessment if they need them and if the latter are safe and effective. They underscored that various supplements do not have scientific evidence for their efficacy and long-term safety. 3. Aerobic and Anaerobic Fitness Basketball is described as a sporadic high-intensity sport that necessitates largely anaerobic metabolism (Castagna et al., 2009; de Araujo et al., 2014). Nonetheless, the period of a basketball game (40–48 min) needs a high level of aerobic metabolism to improve the “resynthesis of creatine phosphate, lactate clearance from active muscle and removal of accumulated intracellular inorganic phosphate” (Glaister, 2005). a. Anaerobic Fitness Anaerobic fitness is essential to tactical moves (i.e., defensive/offensive transitions) and technical performance, including shooting, jumping, blocking, passing, lay-ups and other technical tasks (Castagna et al., 2010; Delextrat and Cohen, 2008). Delextrat and Cohen (2008) determined if rule changes in 2000 affected physiological success indicators in basketball. Their sampling included 8 elite male players and 8 average non-elite players. They performed seven tests, including those that measured anaerobic power and anaerobic capacity. Findings showed that elite players performed better than average players in the agility test, vertical jump test (VT), peak torques, and bench press. They concluded that anaerobic power is essential to modern basketball, but not anaerobic capacity. Alemdaroğlu (2012) confirmed this when he studied the relationship between isokinetic knee strength, anaerobic performance, sprinting ability, agility and vertical jump performance in basketball players. Findings showed no relation between the measures of strength and single sprint performance, but found a strong relationship between anaerobic power and quadriceps strength and peak power (PP). Alemdaroğlu (2012) advised coaches to not use exercises that lasted 30 seconds or more in their programs and to focus more on short and intense tests, such as sprints, VT, and agility test. de Araujo et al. (2014) studied if the Running Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST) is an effective hyperlactatemia inductor. Findings showed that elite basketball players exhibited high anaerobic index, but they also showed comparable aerobic capacity in relation to other elite sports. In addition, RAST is a sensible protocol to measure the anaerobic index and is an exceptional hyperlactatemia inductor of the lactate minimum test (LacMin). The lactate minimum test (LacMin) has been used to forecast the maximal lactate steady state intensity in multiple sports (Faude et al., 2009). b. Aerobic Fitness Aerobic fitness is essential to conditioning exercises (Scanlan, Dascombe, Reaburn and Dalbo, 2012). Scanlan et al. (2012) studied the physiological and activity demands of female basketball players during competition. Findings showed that the heart rate (HR) and blood lactate (BLa) responses of the present cohort designate that Australian female basketball players experience high physiological demands. The athletes also spent significant time dribbling at different intensities. Scanlan et al. (2012) noted the implications of their study to conditioning programs that emphasised dribbling, agility, and shuffling skills. Ben Abdelkrim et al. (2010) studied the demands of competitive basketball games and the relationship between athletes physical capability and game performance. Their findings showed that basketball players had higher fatigue as game time progresses and the authors recommended the potential advantage of aerobic and agility conditioning for junior basketball players. Sprint ability is essential to a high-intensity sport like basketball. Castagna et al. (2007) studied the effects of maximal aerobic power (VO2peak) on the ability to repeat sprints for young basketball players. Findings showed that VO2peak did not predict repeated-sprint ability. The high blood lactate concentrations determined at the end of repeated-sprint ability protocol indicated that it could be used for building lactate tolerance for conditioned basketball players. Stojanovic et al. (2012) studied the correlation between explosive strength and aerobic power for repeated sprint ability of elite male basketball players. They learned that the countermovement jump (CMJ) test predicted specific repeated sprint ability (RSA). They recommended that coaches and strength and conditioning professionals should dedicate more time for explosive strength development in elite basketball players during preparatory stage to improve RSA performance. Castagna et al. (2008) studied the impact of recovery mode on RSA in young basketball players. They learned that fatigue index (FI) during the active protocol was considerably greater than in the passive condition. In addition, during repeated sprinting, passive recovery resulted to better performance, which decreased fatigue. They recommended passive recovery during competition to control fatigue that comes from recurring high intensity exercise. C. Psychology Psychology offers theories, concepts, and measures that help improve knowledge on the internal and external motivators for basketball players (Gonçalves, Coelho e Silva, Carvalho, and Gonçalves, 2011; Guttikonda, 2010). Motivation has been connected to the ability to withstand trainings/programs and to perform an intermittent, high-intensity sport like basketball (Sheldon, Zhaoyang and Williams, 2013). Findings about human cognition and emotions can reveal sources of inspiration, conflicts, and distractions for players (Guttikonda, 2010; Uphill, Groom and Jones, 2014; Vast, Young, Thomas, and Young, 2011). They can say something about the different internal and external variables that shape attention and performance behaviours (Boroujeni and Ghaheri, 2011). In turn, these studies help coaches and related sports personnel in motivating basketball players, as well as improving their capabilities in managing stress and conflicts (Guttikonda, 2010; Uphill et al., 2014; Vast et al., 2011). 1. Motivation Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can improve exercise commitment and performance outcomes for basketball players (Gómez-López, Granero-Gallegos, Abraldes and Rodríguez-Suárez, 2013). Gómez-López et al. (2013) studied the links between the different concepts that determine Nicholls Achievement Goal Theory and Deci and Ryans self-determination theory for 292 young basketball players in Spain. Their findings showed positive relations among ego orientation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation. High ego orientation was correlated with high extrinsic motivation and amotivation. In addition, gender and age differences greatly predicted ego orientation, extrinsic motivation of external regulation and amotivation. They stressed that external motivation is not effective in improving task orientation. Guttikonda (2010) confirmed that internal motivation is more correlated with performance than external motivation. Participants consisted of thirty-six male senior basketball players. Findings showed that neuroticism was positively correlated to extroversion; achievement motivation was positively correlated to incentive motivations; and sports competitive anxiety and socio-economic status were not correlated with basketball performance. The study indicated that personality can affect performance relations and behaviours. In addition, it underlined that achievement motivation served as an essential incentive motivation. Other incentive motivations can also enhance exercise dedication and performance. These studies contribute to coaches’ and related stakeholders’ understanding of the possible external and internal motivators for athletes, though they must consider age, gender, and cultural differences as moderators (Gómez-López et al., 2013). Other studies emphasised the different variables of internal motivation. Gonçalves et al. (2011) stressed that the “Will to Excel” is an important variable for athletes who participate in specialised and demanding sports programs. Furthermore, they learned that excellent performance was positively correlated with more hours of practice (Gonçalves et al., 2011). Exercise dedication may be correlated with successful performance because of underlying positive attitudes toward hard work and excellence (Gonçalves et al., 2011). In addition, participants showed that self orientation may be the key to persistence during practice, which translates to higher performance standards in competition. The study showed that internal will affects attitudes and behaviours before and during competition. Sheldon et al. (2013) used self-determination theory to determine whether pre-game psychological need-satisfaction can predict performance, and if performance can predict post-game need-satisfaction for undergraduate basketball players. Their findings showed that those with higher pre-game autonomy had better total performance during competition than those with lower pre-game autonomy, but the pattern was not significant within-subjects. In addition, good game performance also improved post-game relatedness and competence for between- and within-subjects. An athlete’s psychological state, especially autonomy and competence, can shape sports outcomes (Sheldon et al., 2013). These studies can guide coaches and other concerned individuals and organisations in helping athletes find their specific drives toward optimal performance (Gómez-López et al., 2013). 2. Perfectionism Some studies showed that perfectionism is not always maladaptive and can result to better task performance (Hill, Hall and Appleton, 2012; Stoeber, Chesterman and Tarn, 2010; Stoll, Lau and Stoeber, 2008). Stoeber et al. (2008) confirmed that perfectionism can enhance performance. They determined if invested time (task time) explained the connection between perfectionistic strivings and task performance for 100 college students. Findings showed that perfectionist strivings predicted time on task and task performance. In addition, students who scored high in perfectionistic strivings valued accuracy more than speed than those with low perfectionistic strivings. The study indicated the role of perfectionism in accurate performance and task performance. Stoll et al. (2008) studied how different dimensions of perfectionism can predict performance and incremental changes in performance. They focused on striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection. Their sampling included 122 undergraduate athletes. Findings showed that striving for perfection during training predicted better task performance, while negative reactions to imperfection predicted inferior performance, when athletes tried tasks for the first time. Negative reactions, nonetheless, did not decrease performance for consecutive tries. In addition, athletes with high striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection exhibited the highest performance increments for the set of trials. Apparently, these different dimensions of perfectionism can be used to attain incremental increases in sports outcomes (Stoll et al., 2008). Another study offered a way of measuring the different dimensions of perfectionism. Hill et al. (2012) studied the similarities in the positive perfectionism subscale from the Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale and the achievement striving subscale from the Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Their sampling included seventy-nine junior basketball players. Findings showed that these scales were highly positively correlated and that positive perfectionism and achievement striving are different from each other. This study showed how psychology offers and tests valid measures for important psychological constructs that can impact basketball attitudes and performance. 3. Emotions and performance Psychological studies depict that emotions can also affect performance (Uphill et al., 2014; Vast et al., 2011). Positive emotions can have positive effects on affect and cognition, which may boost performance behaviours too (Uphill et al., 2014; Vast et al., 2011). Negative emotions, on the contrary, can have dampening effects on performance (Uphill et al., 2014; Vast et al., 2011). Uphill et al. (2014) studied the effect of emotions on the basketball performance of six female basketball players. Findings showed that happiness predicted successful game involvement (SGI) and performance behaviour, while anger and embarrassment predicted higher unsuccessful game involvement (UGI). The study focused on females, however, and the type of feelings that influence performance behaviours may differ for men. Vast et al. (2011) studied the impact of emotions on the sensorimotor skill performance of forty novice and 40 experienced basketball players. Findings showed that they both responded quickly to neutral and positive words than negative words. Positive stimuli, in addition, affected the shooting performance of experienced players, but not the novice players. They noted that positive emotion can boost performance through removing attention from the execution of primary task and enhancing automatic skill execution for experienced basketball players. The study indicated that experienced players may be more responsive to positive words because of their playing level, while novice players may be used to negative words because they are still starting out. In another study, Puig and Vilanova (2011) examined the emotions of men who were engaged in achievement outdoor sports. Findings showed that positive emotion can have positive performance effects, if the following conditions were met: passion, intense emotion work and conciliation between emotion work and the feeling rules that define specific sport subcultures. The study showed that positive emotions per se are not enough to drive performance. Several aspects of positive emotions may be needed to motivate athletes to work hard during trainings and competitions (Puig and Vilanova, 2011). 4. Self-Talk Self-talk (ST) is a cognitive strategy that can boost motor tasks and sports performance (Boroujeni and Ghaheri, 2011). Boroujeni and Ghaheri (2011) studied the impact of motivational self-talk (MST) on the auditory whole body and simple and choice reaction time (RT) for 34 female college students. Findings showed that self-talk improved speed in choice reaction time tasks. Another study confirmed the role of MST in choice reaction time tasks. Boroujeni and Shahbazi (2011) studied the effect of different strategies of instructional and motivational self-talk on the components of pass skill and shot performance for 72 students. Motivational self-talk (MST) refers to statements that are designed to assist performance by improving confidence and energy expenditure, increasing effort, and stimulating positive mood (Boroujeni and Shahbazi, 2011). Designing instructional self-talk (IST) help performance by teaching desired movements through driving attentional focus on strategic and technical dimensions of motor skills (Boroujeni and Shahbazi, 2011). Findings showed that those who received instructional self-talk (IST) showed better performance than the control group, while those who received motivational self-talk (MST) had better speed passing performance than the control group. IST was effective in precision- and timing-based skills, while MST was effective for speed-based skills. Hamilton, MacDougall and Scott (2007) studied the effectiveness of three different self-talk interventions on endurance performance. Findings showed that assisted positive self-talk condition predicted the highest increase in performance. Like other mentioned studies, they confirmed that self-talk can directly improve sports performance. Another study focused on MST’s effect on confidence and anxiety, aside from performance. Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Mpoumpaki and Theodorakis (2009) investigated the impacts of motivational self-talk on self-confidence, anxiety, and task performance in young athletes. Findings showed that self-talk improved self-confidence and decreased cognitive anxiety. Self-talk can be an effective strategy during stressful games too, as well as in handling inter-team and intra-team conflicts. III. Conclusions and Recommendations Biomechanics is essential to basketball because it helps understand how the human body can perform sports tasks more efficiently and effectively (Domire and Challis, in press). It generates knowledge about the most effective jumps and lands for athletes (Okazaki et al., 2012). Furthermore, it examines and recommends activities and techniques that can achieve effective shooting (Mullineaux and Uhl, 2010). At the same time, studying different intra- and inter-individual differences that influence ball trajectory contributes to the improvement of basketball performance (Uchida et al., 2014). Moreover, biomechanics studies indicate that movement variability is a product of the neuromuscular system and functionality (Bartlett et al., 2007). Future studies should examine how control of and changes in ball releases height, angle and velocity can result to a deeper understanding of basketball shot control strategies (Okazaki et al., 2012). Besides the contributions of biomechanics, physiology also contributes to studying the energy and physical needs of athletes. Studying energy requirements provides knowledge on proper diet that will respond to the high physical activity levels of athletes (Meyer et al., 2007; Santos et al., 2008). Another contribution of physiology is its continuous study on the efficacy and safety of nutritional supplement for athletes. Some studies showed that certain supplement can be good for body recovery and better performance levels (Schulpis et al., 2007; Smith et al., 2010). Other studies did not advise supplementation because it did not show strong positive effects on health and performance levels (Cholewa et al., 2008; Powers et al., 2011). They stressed that exercise itself may boost performance and not accompanying supplementation (Smith et al., 2010; Suzic Lazic et al., 2011). Besides nutritional needs, physiology contributes to studies on aerobic and anaerobic fitness. Basketball is a sporadic high-intensity sport that relies on significant anaerobic metabolism (Castagna et al., 2009; de Araujo et al., 2014). Its long duration that can reach 40 to 48 minutes, however, requires high level of aerobic metabolism to improve biological synthesis of important nutrients (Glaister, 2005). Authors recommended the potential advantage of aerobic and agility conditioning for junior basketball players (Ben Abdelkrim et al., 2010) and the implementation of explosive strength development to boost repeated sprint ability. Future studies on individual energy needs and lifestyle factors can also improve the validity of physiological studies. The final sports science is psychology that provides theories, concepts, and measures that help build up knowledge on the internal and external motivators of basketball players (Gonçalves et al., 2011; Guttikonda, 2010). Some studies also showed that high striving for perfection and negative reactions to imperfection can result to high performance levels (Stoll et al., 2008; Stoeber et al., 2008). In addition, positive emotions can have positive effects on affect and cognition, which may boost performance behaviours too, while negative emotions can have an opposite effect (Uphill et al., 2014; Vast et al., 2011). Furthermore, studies showed that instructional self-talk (IST) was effective in precision- and timing-based skills, while motivational self-talk (MST) was effective for speed-based skills (Boroujeni and Ghaheri, 2011; Boroujeni and Shahbazi, 2011). 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