Race and Poverty, Changing Poverty and Changing Anitpoverty Policies - Essay Example

Race and Poverty Name Institution Course Professor Date Race and Poverty In United States, there have been dramatic changes to the racial makeup in the second half of the 20th century particularly due to immigrants from Asia and Latin America. At the time, Whites were the dominant race. Today, the American population is comprised of Whites, Blacks, Asian and people of Hispanic origin. The population share of the Whites has since dropped with Hispanics being the largest racial or ethnic minority in America (Lichter, Qian and Crowley 08). Poverty has also changed. The percentage of people that lived in poverty areas fell to 18.1 per cent from 20.0 per cent between 1990 and 2000 (Bishaw 01). However, this trend was reversed between 2000 and 2010 as percentage of people living in poverty areas increased. In 2010, an approximate of 14.9 per cent of United States population lived in poverty (Bishaw 01). There has been substantial achievement in the fight against poverty affecting people of all races in the American society. Considerable drop in percentage of people living in poverty has been achieved across all races. However, poverty is still colored. This essay argues that race relates to poverty and particularly to people of minority race groups such as Hispanic origin and blacks. Poverty is an issue many governments all over the world attempts to address. They used poverty rates as it is an important indicator that shows a society or community well-being. They therefore used it in allocating need-based resources. This is crucial especially in situation where different ethnic or racial groups in a country are more poverty stricken than others. In 2007-2011, Alaska natives and American Indians comprised the highest percentage of people living in poverty with 27 per cent and Blacks were 25.8 per cent (Macartney, Bishaw and Fontenot 02). In contrast, the dominant race, Whites, had a national poverty rate of 11.6 per cent during the same period (Macartney, Bishaw and Fontenot 02). This shows that race relates to poverty. Whites are many in the United States and institutional, cultural, social, and economic changes seem to favor them. For this reason, they have lower poverty rates and are generally well-off and possess a lot of assets than Asians, Blacks and individuals of Hispanic origin. There has been substantial progress in the fight against discrimination on basis of race. Civil rights have also been expanded and many Americans are enjoying the benefits of expanded democratic rights. Despite all these achievements, poverty is still colored. Lin and Harris (01) contend that poverty is as a result of cumulative process and does not arise as a result of a single source. A disadvantage of any kind makes a person to be vulnerable to other disadvantages. For example, a minority ethnic group is vulnerable to institutional disadvantages because of their low number. They will find it hard to influence decisions at the local, state or regional level that can address their grievances and solve the kind of injustices and inequalities that are present. Due to their minority status, they are thus disadvantaged in making important decisions that can change the course of their lives such lifting them from poverty. Racial differences in poverty have existed for a very long time. This is as a result of cumulative disadvantages that may have been encountered over a life course. The hardships effect that is experienced in one domain, such as slavery, is transferred or trickle down into other domains. In United States, in every four Latino children, one live in poverty and in every three children of African American descendent, one lives in poverty (Lin and Harris 01). This is twice as high as that of the rate for the white children. These statistics point out to the fact that race relates to poverty. Residential areas that are occupied predominantly by Hispanic or black communities tends to access low number of many social services than neighborhoods that are predominantly occupied by whites. They are thus disadvantaged in their efforts to have strong economic conditions and deal comprehensively with the poverty situation. In United States, big differences among racial groups concerning poverty concentration do exist. A black person who is poor is more than four times likely to live in a neighborhood that is extremely poor as compared to a poor person of non-Hispanic white origin (Jargowsky 01). It is also much likely for a Hispanic poor to live in a neighborhood with high poverty rates than a white poor. The economic downturn of 2008 exacerbated the problem of concentration of poverty. It is likely that the concentrated poverty rises in this period and continues to increase. People that live in poor neighborhoods are ‘doubly disadvantaged’ because they are poor and are exposed to decline in employment opportunities, inadequate public services, poor educational services, low-wage jobs and high rates of violent crime (Lichter, Paris and Taquino 04). Spatial inequality and concentration of poverty are linked to the changes in patterns of residential segregation among racial populations of the United States. Most of racial minority populations that include those with historical high poverty rates live in neighborhoods that are racially segregated (Timberlake and Iceland 342). In 1980s and early 1990s, debates about racial inequality and poverty in most cases were about developing an ‘underclass’. This refers to the causes and effects of concentrated poverty. Economic boom that was experienced in 1990s unexpectedly led to massive reductions in poverty (Lichter and Johnson ). The areas that had high poverty rates declined between 1990 and 2000, for example. The Great Recession of 2008 had many effects on the American economy. In particular, it forced the country to rethink and focus on the rising poverty, increase in racial and ethnic inequalities and unevenness in terms of economic dislocations such as unemployment (Lichter, Paris and Taquino 03). Poverty rate has since rise and it is high than the levels that were attained in mid-1990s. Majority of the poor people in United States are from racial or ethnic minorities (57.6 per cent) (Lichter, Paris and Taquino 03). These are groups of people other those of non-Hispanic white origin. Statistics from the Census Bureau continually shows that the poverty rates of Hispanics and African Americans are almost three times higher than those of non-Hispanic whites. It is not surprising to note that regions that were severely affected by economic downturn, housing bubbles or financial crisis have highest poverty rates. The inequality in terms of poverty rates has raised some questions concerning issues of racial inequality and poverty. The federal as well as state governments have been undertaking massive expenditures in the last several decades. Despite this, poverty rates are still high although they have fluctuated. Despite three recessions in 1960s and 1970s, poverty rates significantly declined (Rodgers 27). Unfortunately, trend in reduction of poverty did not continue despite substantial increases in welfare spending that had been adjusted to cover inflation. It increased in early 1980s but decline modestly in the period after 1980s. Poverty rise dramatically in early 1990s and then declined through 1994 to 2000. It increases in the years of 2001, 2002 and 2003. For example, in 2003, there were 4.3 million people that were living in poverty than in 2000 (Rodgers 27). Furthermore, the percentage of people who were poor in 2003 was more than those registered in the years of 1970s. It is clear that making significant process in decreasing poverty levels has been an elusive objective. Race is a powerful predictor of poverty. Poverty rate is a useful tool as it provides a measure showing the percentage of people with individual or family income and is below the poverty thresholds that have been established. In United States, poverty has spatial and racial dimensions (Billings and Blee 208). The poor are clustered in terms of skin color and the place. Hispanics in the south west, African Americans in urban centers, and Native Americans on reservations are some of the examples of this clustering. Much of the research work that has been done views poverty and race as individual attributes. Race acts as a filter on economic opportunity access (Billings and Blee 208). Race, historically had been social relation that shapes historical development conditions and is also shaped by it. In the 21st century, United States is more diverse in terms of racial composition that it was in the 20th century. In the 20th century, European immigrants were the primary force that shapes the United States racial complexion. In the second half of this century, immigrants from non-European countries increase, numbers of minority populations in America increased hence shaping the racial complexion in the country. United States thus entered the 21st century having nearly one-third of the total population made up of racial and ethnic minority persons (Aguirre 42). In other words, almost 80 million people belong to the racial and ethnic minority groups in United States at the start of the 21st century. It is to be observed that uneven progress was registered in different racial populations. In particular, Hispanics and Blacks made a slow progress economically while Whites and Asians progressed more rapidly hence the difference in poverty rates. A society well-being is determined by factors that reflects how individuals interact with disruptive social events or forces. Poverty is one those indicators. Educational background can form the status of well being of a society. Black and Hispanic communities have considerable lower level of education as compared to Whites. Majority of people of Hispanic origin work in blue-collar jobs and their numbers are considerably low in white-collar occupations. Poverty is at the same level among the Hispanic persons and families. The percentage of Hispanics that lived in poverty is two times as high as those of whites, and the percentage of Hispanic families that live in poverty is thrice as high (Aguirre 37). The situation is similar in the households of the black people. Uneven progress in terms of various social indicators is being made Asians, Hispanics and Blacks communities. However, Asians fare better than Hispanics and blacks. A concept of minority group would only be restricted to cultural or numeral considerations if national origin and race significance was largely symbolic rather than economic. Native Americans, Hispanics and Blacks continue to be represented disproportionately among the disadvantaged groups in United States. High rates of poverty among minority is high compared to non-minority is not a denial of accomplishments of the efforts against poverty. The incidence of poverty has considerably been decreased for all racial groups for nearly most of the last quarter of a century (Sandefur and Tienda 24). Relative economic status of minorities resides in changes which had repercussions for social policy that were experienced between 1960 and 1985. American nation saw major turning point in terms of social policy from 1960s. This period saw enactment of civil rights that was legislated and it declared war on poverty. Due to changes that were observed in the social policy, there were substantial improvements in the minority population economic well-being. In 1960-1985, four recessions was witnessed with two of them being major. Although the well-being of an individual seems to fluctuate according to the business cycle, minority and non-minority socioeconomic inequities could converge in the long run, nonetheless. However, this would never have materialized if regressive effects of the economic downturns were more severe for racial groups than for whites who are non-Hispanic (Sanderfur and Tienda 24). A gradual improvement in minorities’ relative economic status in comparison with non-minorities would in a way suggests that the economic and social effects of recessions does not disproportionately falls on minority populations. Nonetheless, presence of minimal improvements or broadening gaps between populations of minority and non-minority descents would presents evidence to the contrary. It is both enduring and troubling economic and social history of America that the differences in rates of poverty between racial groups is still large and continue to persist. In the 20th century, progress was made in closing this gap although it was an incomplete and uneven progress. Since 1960s, absolute gaps in rates of poverty between racial minorities and whites have gone down but the continued large disparities raise challenges. Rapid economic growth increased the earnings of all workers regardless of racial groups in 1950s and 1960s. Furthermore, civil rights legislation and public policies were changed increasing access to both educational and job prospects. This led to occupational gains and relative growth of income for racially minority groups such as African Americans. Rates of poverty had come down to 8 per cent for whites and 31 per cent for blacks by 1959 (Cancian and Danziger 05). Although majority of the population were whites in this period, and still are, the population that were poor were still low in comparison with minority races. This may point out to the notion that race and poverty relates to each other with minority races being synonymous with high poverty rates. Additional progress in terms of reducing discriminatory barriers on racial and ethnic grounds was made in 1970s and 1980s. However, slow rate of economic growth together with high rates of unemployment and decreasing real wages for working class people having high school degree as their highest educational achievement halted the progress against poverty for all racial groups (Cancian and Danziger 05). Slow and growth rate that was unequal led to a unique period in which official poverty rate increased over two decades. For example, official poverty rate for white non-Hispanics was 7.5 per cent, 21.0 per cent for Hispanics and 31.4 per cent for the blacks (Cancian and Danziger 05). The economic boom that began after early 1990s recession led to lowest unemployment rates. The real wage rates of workers who were less-educated was going up and tight labor markets had significant positive impact on rates of poverty of Hispanic as well as black families than they were for white non-Hispanic families. This is because workers of Hispanic and Black origins are more likely to be having less education than whites. Moreover, it is also because Hispanics and blacks made larger gains among less-educated workers than whites (Cancian and Danziger 06). The severe economic meltdown experienced in 2008 increase official poverty rate as reductions in employment and earnings were realized. It is surprising to many policy formulators that during 1980s and 1990s where long economic expansions was witnessed, official poverty rate has since remained higher than it was recorded in 1973 (Cancian and Danziger 01). Changes in economy, social conditions that affect population demographics and public policies have come together in reducing economic growth antipoverty effects. Today, economic growth is a necessary item in reducing poverty significantly but it is not sufficient (Cancian and Danziger 01). Antipoverty policies need expansion and reform in addressing the new economic and demographic realities. Poverty and the role that race and ethic group play is a contentious debate especially the different number of factors that have been advanced in explaining reasons leading some people to be poor or to remain poor. In other quarters, explanations such as it is primarily a personal choice regarding educational investments, efforts in searching jobs and decisions concerning formation of family and childbearing that poverty is a consequence of them. Other explanations emphasize the structural factors shaping the available set of choices to an individual and it differs systematically. For example, it can differ systematically by race, gender or parental socio-economic status (Cancian and Danziger 02). Structural factors can include change in jobs that are available and it is as a result of globalization, technological changes and inequality in accessing employment opportunities and good schools. This may be due to practices that are discriminatory and/or residential segregation (Cancian and Danziger 02). Race and economic inequality are concepts that are closely intertwined. Inequalities existing later on in an individual life has its origin in a persons’ early participation in labor force of which amplification is done in late adulthood. For example, in the United States, African Americans who are old are still feeling unequal educational opportunities and job discrimination patterns impacts that were there in early years and still persist till today. 9 per cent of the total population that is 65 years and above is African Americans but accounts for over 27 per cent of older American people who are in poverty (Kendall 367). Hispanics accounts for over 25 per cent of Americans that live in poverty but constitute about 6 per cent of the people who are 65 years and above. Whites constitute 80 per cent of older population of the United States but only constitute 12.8 per cent of older Americans that live in poverty (DeNavas,-Walt, Proctor and Smith ). There must be explanations to this kind of disparities in poverty rates between different races. Racial-ethnic minority groups have considerable higher poverty rates than other groups in the American society. The reason is traced back to a pattern of limited employment opportunities that led to lower income status throughout their lives. Moreover, in most of their lives, they experience unemployment (Kendall 367). This combines with the fact that they are more concentrated in secondary-sector jobs that are sporadic, pays lower wages and have few benefits. Social security did not also covered this category of jobs prior to 1950s (Hooyman and Kiyak 344). Furthermore, health problems such as diabetes, hypertension and kidney failure are higher among African Americans populations which may force them out of the labor force as compared to other workers (Hooyman and Kiyak 344). Consequently, large proportion of income that is received by African Americans who are 65 years and above emanates from Social Security benefits. The rate of poverty for Hispanics is similar to that of African Americans as it is higher than those of non-Hispanics whites because of different reasons. People of Hispanic origin have higher rates of poverty as compared with the whites because they lack both educational and employment opportunities (Kendall 367). Some older Hispanics enter United States in an illegal manner hence experienced limited opportunities in terms of education and employment. They are therefore left with either little or no Social Security benefits when they are in their older years. Those Hispanics who have lived in America all their life have received lower earnings and covered by pension in a limited way than the white Americans. High rates of poverty among people of Hispanic race origin is contributed by lack of regular physician care, poor health conditions and registers relatively few trips to health centers in case of illness, injury, disease or to seek medical treatment (Kendall 367). Today, more than three quarter of older Hispanics are relying on Social Security benefits according to the figures by Social Security and Medicare in 2012. Disparity in rates of poverty has persisted across racial groups in the country for many decades or even centuries. This is owed to race specific factors and those that are race-neutral. Most of the poor people are either from black or Hispanic origin races, race minorities groups will be disproportionately affected by public policy and economic changes that are race-neutral and are affecting low-income families as well as low-wage workers (Cancian and Danziger 05). However, race also shapes both content and context of public policies in a direct way. Racial resident segregation is still at high levels despite various constitutional and policy changes that have led to persons of Hispanics and black races to continue have low educational level. With low levels of educations, it is difficult for them to get white-collar or high paying jobs and lift their families out of poverty. Nonetheless, they still experience institutional and social disadvantages which only act to ensure they remain poor despite various governments and individual interventions to address the issue. In United States, it is evident that poverty inequality is substantial. The gap between the blacks and people of Hispanic origin seems to widen instead of decreasing owed to the kind of institutional changes and policies that have been adopted to mitigate this problem. Factors such as low level of education and limited employment opportunities have played a significant role in ensuring that this problem still persist. People of Hispanic origin have higher poverty rates than non-Hispanic whites due to various disadvantages that they have faced throughout their history. Slavery, racism and segregation play a significant role in ensuring that they remain poor. Although enactment of Civil Rights and various policy legislations to tackle the issue of poverty among the minority groups have been carried out by several governments, the ripple effects of the past mistreatments continue to be felt by these groups of American society hence comparably higher rates of poverty among them than the white people. Works Cited Aguirre, Adalberto. Racial and Ethnic Diversity in America: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2003. Print. Billings, Dwight B, and Kathleen M. Blee. The Road to Poverty: The Making of Wealth and Hardship in Appalachia. Cambridge [u.a.: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2000. Print. Bishaw, Alemayehu, and Jessica Semega. Income, Earnings, and Poverty Data from the 2007 American Community Survey. Washington, D.C: U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau, 2008. Print. Bishaw, Alemayehu. "Changes in Areas With Concentrated Poverty: 2000 to 20101." American Community Survey (2014). 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