Is Disability in Society Socially Constructed or a Biological Process - Essay Example

Disability in Society By Name: Institution: Module: Date: Sociologists of disability argue that “disability" is socially constructed, as well as a biological process. The issue of ‘disability’ needs a sober and critical review of the contrasting opinions held by sociologists against the medical model dominance. According to the medical model, rehabilitative and medical practitioners and professionals conceive disability as a personal medical and/or physiological condition that requires the affected individual to have medical or rehabilitative intervention (Imrie 1997). However, such perspectives are questionable since they demean the understanding of disability by defining it in terms of ‘patient’ while ignoring the wider scope of environmental and social influences. The medical model thus engenders the disability state. The argument in this paper centers on disability perspectives and society in view that environmental, attitudinal, and social barriers form important component in further disabling individuals with mental and/or physical impairments. Therefore it is within this domain that disability stigma can be broken down through disabling of social prejudices against physically/mentally impaired people or seek alternative measures to cure the mental or physical disabilities (Imrie 1997). In recent times, sensitizations about disability have resulted to shifting beliefs. Among noticeable changes is the shift from paternalistic to rights-based view. The issue of disability is currently looked at by considering shifting attitudes and believes, human rights activism, and social model. In lieu of line of thought, present day disabled people are held in the same citizenry rights as non-disabled individuals. They are bestowed with equal opportunities to play part in society activities and lead ordinary life. Despite this newly found platform, disabled people encounter barriers to achieve aspirations in the same way as non-disabled people (Roulstone et al. 2003). The issue of equal opportunity is engulfed in the dark shadow of paternalistic, protective, and segregational approaches. For example in the past, disabled children were taught in ‘special schools’ as the only option of attaining education, while intellectual people with disabilities stayed in residential institutions rather than interaction/integration in communities. According to human rights approach, disabled persons must be honoured by strengthening society’s capacity to meet their needs (Roulstone et al. 2003). The human rights movement advocates for fair treatment and citizenship freedom, in contrast, people with disability have no capacity to fully participate or reach potential that community requires. This is due to challenges they encounter in everyday life activities. The scale of challenges range from physical incapability to attitudinal, thus they always lack behind in exercising of their freedom. On the other hand, the social model spells out that people with disability are indeed further subjected to ‘disabilities’, for example the society in constructing infrastructure and social amenities do not consider accommodation of the diverse abilities and citizens needs (Roulstone et al. 2003). Sociologists therefore put task to society including the administrative authority to design systems which gives room for all citizenry utilization. This will accommodate disabled people equally as the non-disabled persons. Disabilities have no limits, and affects people in all ages and ethnicity. Among classified impairments include psychiatric, intellectual, sensory or neurological, physical incapabilities that are intermittent, temporary or progressive. Therefore, society can further inflict more disability by excluding disabled persons from independence or participation through design of services, buildings, channels of communication, and attitudes which renders them inaccessible. Based on these arguments, disability can be defined in terms of reflections of a disabling process in society (Roulstone et al. 2003). Contrary to these sediments, service to disabled persons in the recent decades has dramatically been transformed. Most noticeable is in public sectors where governments strive to deliver supportive disability and health support services to the communities, commonly referred to as mainstreaming (Roulstone et al. 2003). Mainstreaming encompasses provision of services to individuals with disability in similar locations as those rendered to non-disabled people. Choice is also given to the disabled persons either to access the in a specialized or general setting. It is however depressing that old attitudes and beliefs persist especially to stereotypic individuals who challenge provision of social amenities. Administrative authorities should respond to such impediments by evolving philosophical disability approaches (Roulstone et al. 2003). In Canada for example, improved rehabilitation methods and advances in technology have rendered the ‘charity model’ obsolete thus Canadian citizens with disability can fully participate in economy and society development projects (Imrie 1997). The government initiated employment and training measures that removed the barriers that used to segregate people with disabilities (Roulstone et al. 2003). On international level, the United Nations dedicated 1983 to 1992 as a decade for disabled people, thus governs were required to undertake review of policies related to disabilities and initiate reform programs. One such requirement is to raise public awareness on disability issues through advocacy and extension of services. Debate is raised over disabled persons place in light of economic and social statistics. In more recent policy surveys, conclusion is that most economic and social programs do not meet disabled persons needs (Young 1997). There is a general consensus that such programs factored on marginalized disabilities forgetting to revise addition of disability-related activities. The key issues in the center of debate revolve around definition of disability, need to separate eligible and non-eligible, and nature of ‘employability’ in the services supporting disability-related programs. It is therefore very critical to get definition of disability from at first. Eligibility and disability ought to be differentiated while implementing reform programs (Young 1997). According to World Health Organization (WHO), a multi-level disability definition where ‘impairment’ was defined as a transitory or permanent anatomical or psychological loss or abnormality, while ‘disability’ is the reduction or loss of functional activity or ability as a result of impairment, and ‘handicap’ as either environmental or social disadvantage arising from disability or impairment. In this context, an impairment which is correctable by an assistive device such as hearing aid does not qualify to be a disability or handicap (Young 1997). The debate on disability has rich and memorable writings and research and can not be concluded without re-visiting theoretical contributions of Vygotsky’s paradigm. Vygotsky studied the general theory of child development where he designed a practical-oriented and comprehensive paradigm of educating special needs children (Educational Psychologist 1995). Vygotsky’s rationale based on children’s handicapping conditions, disabled persons psychoeducational evaluation, compensation issues and educating children with cognitive and sensory impairments (Educational Psychologist 1995). According to L. Vygotsky, understanding of the dynamics surrounding handicap and social substance are key aspects in defining abnormal and normal bahaviour in human development. He postulated that development of human is a socio-genetic process carried out in the social activities of children with adults. Similarly, within the context of human development, two classes of psychological functions arise, these are ‘lower’ or natural and cultural or ‘higher’ functions. The first class is created within biological predisposition defined as elementary memory, perception, attention and dynamic nervous system characteristics. The second class is that which defines abstract reasoning, language, logical memory, planning, voluntary attention, decision making and others. These are developmental functions that appear gradually through transformation process from lower functions into adulthood structured functions mend to serve as means of conduct and social goals (Educational Psychologist 1995). The process of transformation is facilitated by a ‘mediated activity’ as well as ‘psychological tools’. Transformations are a socially meaningful activity which shapes a person’s makeup deviation from normal transformation results to handicap or disability (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 57). Understanding of defects in the transformational process as well as identification of means of compensation for the core of any rehabilitation system such as special education, in contrast, mental weakness or sensory defects were traditionally defined biologically as fact or ‘disease’. This often resulted to psychological consequences such as a handicap or mental retardation (Educational Psychologist 1995). In the paradigm of Vygotsky, a child with mental handicap is simply a child with lower development compared to his peers, thus from the social perspective misconstrued perceptions condemns the primary problem of handicap resulting to social implications. The social perspective is better underlined in the theory of disontognesis where primary defects, secondary defects and subsequent interactions between the two are conceptual. The primary defect such as impairment of an organ may be caused by exogenous or endogenous biological causes, while secondary defect is due to distortions of higher psychological functions as a result of social factors (Educational Psychologist 1995). Sociologists have analyzed disability despite inadequate methodological and theoretical frameworks, this is due to contemporary nature of sociology as a disciple which accepts individualistic legitimacy of biomedical disability approach. Cultural, economic, and political forces play key role in reading about phenomenon of ‘non-disabled’ than disabled individuals. This argument is created in modern society and continues to overlook disability thus marginalizing disabled people among the population (Oliver 1990). Moreover, much greater focus is pointed towards divergent views forgetting that disability is an issue that is central to mainstream sociological analyses and discourse as gender, class, sexuality and race. It is until recent that sociologists involved in chronic illness and medical sociology expressed sentiments over the increasing importance of ‘social oppression theory’ of disability. Feminist issues have drawn more research overshadowing positive debate on disability. In short there is perceived threat to non-disabled researchers engaged in disability research (Oliver and Barnes 1993). However, precedence should be given to disability through sociological research methodologies as well as creation of independence within the context of medical sociology. This will elevate disability as a problem of minority in population (Oliver and Barnes 1993). Correction of misplaced views about disability requires a cognitive adjustment to impairment which is characterized by denial, shock, depression, and anger. Validity of approaches to address disability in society (Oliver and Barnes 1993) can be criticized based on three levels. First is the determinist behaviour of positive commensurate where professionals fail to perceive reality. Second is the question of ignorance to extraneous political, economic, and social factors. Third is the undermining nature coupled with denial of subjective interpretation of disability which can be summed up as a product of psychological imagination (Oliver and Barnes 1993). In general there is a continuous ideological hegemony about disability in social context as a result of professional expediency prevalence both at individual as well as structural levels in society. Since 1960s, sociologists have been working on social reactions to minority groups including disabled persons. However, greater interest was towards drug addiction and crime and the ethnographic research which focused on labeling process and deviance creation (Oliver and Barnes 1993). Goffman (cited in Oliver and Barnes 1993), coined the term ‘stigma’ as a basis of perception by disabled people being oppressed. So far based on models and theories raised in this paper, discussion of disability related issues has endless models. There is potential danger of indulging on deliberations on social model or medical model and forgetting actual issues raised about disability. In summary, disability is about discrimination, oppression, poverty, and inequality (Oliver 1990). This is in contrast to medical and social models, in fact medicalisation of disability is an outride inappropriateness in articulating disability problems (Oliver 1990). In this paper, individual or medical model is short in addressing two fundamental points about disability. First, the model only locates disability as a problem at a personal level. Secondly, causes of disability as a problem are perceived to stem from psychological losses or functional limitations arising from disability. Critical assessment of the two points suggests disability as a terrible event or chances that randomly occurs to less privileged persons. Social model on the other hand rejects the fundamental points but does not deny disability as a problem that is squarely rooted in society (Oliver 1990). Actually the model blames society’s failure as the cause of the problem rather than disability itself. In this view, disabled persons experience discrimination as a consequence by society failure to account for their needs through social organization. Amalgamation of the two models would serve as a remedy to disability. Therefore, this paper concurs with the sociologist’s argument that ‘disability’ is socially constructed, as well as a biological process (Oliver 1990). Bibliography Educational Psychologist. 1995.‘The social/cultural implication of disability: Vygotsky's paradigm for special education,’ Educational Psychologist, 30(2):77-81. Retrieved March 12, 2010 from Imrie, Rob. 1997. ‘Rethinking the relationships between disability, rehabilitation, and society,’ Disability & Rehabilitation, (19)7: 263-271. Oliver, M. 1990. ‘People with established locomotor disabilities in Hospitals,’ The individual and social models of disability, Retrieved March 12, 2010 from Oliver, M & Barnes, C. 1993.Disability: A Sociological Phenomenon Ignored by Sociologists. Retrieved March 12, 2010 from Roulstone, A., Gradwell, L., Price, J., and Child, L. 2003. How disabled people manage in the workplace. Retrieved March 12, 2010 from Young, W R. 1997. Disability: socio-economic aspects and proposals for reform, Political and Social Affairs Division Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Read More