Is Masculinity a Source of Anxiety for Men - Essay Example

? Is masculinity currently a source of anxiety for men? Due Table of Contents Table of Contents 2 Introduction 3 Masculinity 5 Masculinity and anxiety 8 Unemployment and masculinity 9 Crises on masculinity 10 Pathological masculinity 11 Masculine images 13 Conclusion 13 Works Cited 14 Introduction Males and females are considered and constructed differently within society. Although modern times have seen a diversification in the roles that males and female plays and how they are perceived, there is still a perception of femininity and masculinity. Many aspects of society act to repress traditional images and perceptions of masculinity, such as the economic climate, the proliferation of other male roles, and the perception that some masculine aspects are detrimental and should not be encouraged. This essay examines masculinity in current society and considers whether it acts as a source of anxiety for men. There are significant differences between the genders in the way that people behave and what is expected of them. For example, it is widely recognised that males and females behave in different ways. Behavioural research has shown that males are more likely to take risks and be competitive than females . Another aspect where behaviour differs is in terms of health beliefs and behaviour that promotes good health. While females respond well to interventions that are designed to improve health, males show strong resistance. These differences are strongly associated with the perception of masculinity . Most considerations of masculinity and femininity begin with the basic assumption that men are one thing and women are something else. They are two opposites, dichotomies, distinct from one another in numerous ways. Traditional perceptions of males and females often consider that men are defined as themselves, while women are considered by what they do not have compared to males. Although feminism has made much progression in the area of females being considered inferior, or lacking, there is still an underlying notion that males and females are distinct from one another . How valid is this assumption? Biologically men and women are distinct from one another (with a few exceptions that are the result of chromosomal abnormalities), but does this difference in physical characteristics correspond to distinct sexual identities, one for each gender? The standard formula is for two distinct identities. On average, most men behave in a manner that is considered to be male or masculine. They wear pants, they do not wear makeup, most do not show emotions and a large number exhibit a rugged demeanour where they attempt to be strong. Likewise, women tend to be different. However, there are many people in society for whom these traditional images of males and females do not explain their behaviour patterns. For example, transsexuals are of one distinct physical gender, but behave as if they are the opposite. This is most commonly recognised in males, such as men who dress in female clothing and wear makeup . There are less extreme examples of this also. Some men are highly emotional, while others focus strongly on clothing or skin appearance, in a way that is more strongly associated with females. Therefore, within modern society, there are many different images of gender, from the typical perceptions of male and female, to those that do not conform to the recognised ‘rules’. What is masculinity in this context? Does it still exist, or are gender perceptions so fluid that there is no distinction between male and female gender identities. To understand this, it is important to first consider the concepts of masculinity and femininity and how these are perceived in modern society. Masculinity As a concept, masculinity can be difficult to define, as it means different things to different people, and it is an idea that continues to change and grow. A typical male of the 1960s is very little like the typical male of the modern era. Furthermore, the presence of people who defy gender boundaries also make this difficult to define. Is masculinity the same when a homosexual couple is considered as it is for an ‘average’ male? Freud once argued that the ideas of masculinity and femininity are highly confused. This observation is highly accurate and definitions of these two terms vary significantly depending on who is defining them and the purpose. In many cases achieving a definition for masculinity at all is difficult . In some ways this is surprising, as there are many inherent considerations of what is masculine and what is not. For example, the term ‘red-blooded American male’ is often thought to refer to a man who is highly masculine. Traits such as strength, resilience, ability to provide and not expressing emotions are often considered strongly masculine. However, once more, whether specific aspects of a male are considered to be masculine really depends on the individual considering it. Despite strong progress in gender equality, there are many activities that are regarded as instinctively ‘male’ or ‘female’. Dance is an example of this. When dance was beginning to become highly popular in the United States between 1910 and 1920, this physical display had a strong appeal to females offering physical freedom and an awareness of the body. When male dancers did become involved in dancing, their participation was often insulted, and they were derided for being feminine . This is one example of many, both in society’s history and in modern times, where a certain activity was perceived to belong exclusively to a particular gender. Another example of this was the fact that the Olympic games were once restricted to only male athletes. The male role is sometimes defined as the accumulation of the expectations of society on men, the criticisms of feminists and the portrayal of men through modern media . Perceptions of masculinity vary between individual people and sources. One study identified narrative themes from respondents, and found that the most common perceptions were that masculine men, or ‘real men’, do not whine, are not vulnerable, are winners and compete . In contrast, feminine characteristics include strong emotions, caring for other people, altruism and expressivity . For men that are not masculine, there are many derogatory terms that remain common, even in the present day. Men may be considered a ‘poof’, a ‘dandy’, a ‘fag’, or a ‘wimp’ . The American model of masculinity is strongly functional and work- centred. These are men that work hard and care for themselves and their families. Job distribution in Western countries still reflects this concept. For example, in Great Britain, 91% of employees in the construction industry are men, as are 77% of men in energy and water, and 74% in manufacturing. In contrast, traditionally female industries show a much greater percentage of female workers. In the health and social work industry 81% of employees were females, and 71% in the education industry were female . This shows that there is a concept of masculinity that is present in society. Industries such as manufacturing and construction involve hard physical labour, a significant aspect of the masculine approach. In contrast, social work and education involves caring for and helping other people, a feminine trait. A predominant theory is that at any given time, there is more than one model of what is masculine, and these models compete against one another. This is linked to the fundamental clash of the mind and the body, with some models favouring intelligible pursuits . Traditional models of masculinity focus on the pattern of males being dominant over females. This concept of masculinity is related to the assumption that male and females are dichotomous . However, in recent society, the concept of gender is not strictly dichotomous, due to the presence of aspects such as homosexual males and females, where one member of the partnership may be more masculine than the other, but both are of the same gender. Despite the prominence of typical male models and masculinity, research indicates that there is little biological difference that drives these differences. Instead, these differences appear to be a function of society and its assumptions . Throughout history thought has focused on an accepted concept of the way that males should behave, however, alternative models of behaviour have always been present to some extent. There are many models of male behaviour that society considers to be non-masculine. It is only recently that society is beginning to accept some of these roles. Nevertheless, there is a strong perception that such models of male behaviour are not masculine. Masculinity and anxiety The idea of masculinity and manhood is strongly related to sociological constructs. For many males, masculinity is currently a source of anxiety, as it is difficult to achieve in modern society. Feeling masculine is thought to be achieved best in a society that is strongly focused on this aspect. Rites of passage in this type of society help males to feel masculine, which in turn motivates them to be involved in work, particularly physical labour . Connell (2005: 32) argues that: So long as there are battles to be fought, wars to be won, heights to be scaled, hard work to be done, some of us will have to ‘act like men.’ However, in modern society many men are in situation where these factors do not exist. The economic climate often places men in the position where they cannot care for their families, and they can feel that they have lost their masculinity in this way. Other times, a man may have to provide for his family by working long hours at a desk job. While he is providing for his family, he may feel that he has lost a significant part of his masculinity as his work is mundane, non-physical and may not be challenging. Unemployment and masculinity One strong aspect of masculinity that has been declining in modern society is the concept of the male breadwinner. As the breadwinner for his family, the male was historically responsible for obtaining the money needed for his family to survive. Success at this role was strongly associated with feelings of manhood and masculinity . However, the rise of feminism and economic difficulties have meant that in developed countries it is unusual for only the male to work. This problem becomes even more significant in modern society, as unemployment rates mean that many males are unable to earn money for their family, or are present in risky jobs where their long term employment is not guaranteed . Research shows that economic circumstances can be hard on men, and as they lose families, jobs or homes, they feel that they are castoffs, that they have no power and no control . These men have lost their masculinity and this results in confusion and anxiety. Men who lose their job, regardless of the circumstances, tend to eventually blame themselves. Many feel that they should have moved to a new job sooner or done more to ensure they maintained their employment. While this theme is present in females, it is perhaps stronger in males because losing their job is a significant blow to their masculinity. Self-identity in males is strongly related to the work environment, which is tied into the idea of being a breadwinner for their family. Females often have multiple identities that they can use, and because of this they often fare better when they are in-between jobs. However, for males, the loss of a job can significantly decrease the man’s perception of his masculinity and make him feel like less of a man . Unemployment for males therefore has the potential to have a significant psychological impact on the individual. Men who do not have jobs often feel that they are not fulfilling their role as a breadwinner, which can lead to increased anxiety about their masculinity and stress about what they can do to feel like a man again. Job security also has a significant role in this. Not so long ago, employment in a large firm meant an almost ironclad guarantee that there was work as long as the employee wished to remain at the firm. In current times, even large firms make large numbers of staff members redundant, and job security is no longer strong, regardless of your source of employment . This can also be a significant source of anxiety for men, as the potential for unemployment is always present, and this leads to a decrease in masculinity that the man feels. Crises on masculinity Many men and young men feel that their masculinity is being demonised by culture or by their family. A large number of values that are typically characterised as being masculine are thought the be negative and even pathological. Some of these ‘masculine values’ include self-assertion, independence and sometimes even having objectivity. This attitude is prevalent in the school system and many other areas of society, suggesting that passivity should be the norm, while any form of resistance becomes criminal . This loss of power has a significant effect on masculinity, making men feel that they are unable to live to their full potential. All too often studies on masculinity focus on the dangers that this has towards society. Men are argued to be wife-beaters, out-of-control, and having bestial natures that need to be controlled. The effect that this can have on many males is substantial and many feel that they have lost their way, and have no self-identity remaining. One of the strongest arguments about masculinity is that men have to be in control at all time. Consequently, feminists argue that as men are losing power to women they feel that they are losing control and consequently, are not masculine. However, being in control is not necessarily a component of masculinity, and focusing on this aspect does not help to resolve issues of male masculinity . Research needs to move away from looking at what is ‘wrong’ with masculinity, and instead focused on how males can be made to feel more masculine. Pathological masculinity With traditional avenues of masculinity closed to many men through family, society and employment problems, many men turn to other methods in order to feel empowered. Pathological masculinity is one example of this, where men turn to violence and criminal acts in an attempt to replace the masculinity that they desire. This can be seen in figures of criminal activity. Men are more likely to commit a wide range of violent crime, with the ratio between males and females being 27:1 for murder, and 8:1 for grievous bodily harm . The implication of these statistics is debated across studies. Some researchers and feminists argue that the elevated level of violence exhibited by males is an indication that these masculine traits are detrimental, and use this as evidence that these should be repressed. For example, some researchers argue that male behaviour is a continuum that begins at normal masculine behaviour and ends at the worst violent crimes such as murder and rape . Evidence for repressed masculinity causing pathological responses comes from the way that males behave when moving from a traditional to a non-traditional occupation. In a traditionally male industry, men experience their masculinity and do not experience anxiety from masculinity. However, moving to a non-traditional industry for males often results in a loss of the feeling of masculinity. This can result in males reconstructing their masculinity in the new industry. This often results in the male either distancing themselves from other members of the job, or by bullying other men, in an attempt to gain dominance and regain their sensation of masculinity . Because of this, it is often argued that programs which act to help males to experience and celebrate their masculinity lead to a negative approach to female characteristics, and consequently result in violence towards females . However, despite the many arguments that suggest that masculinity leads to violence is not necessarily the case. In many cases, masculinity has the potential to help males understand more about themselves and to develop emotionally. Therefore, masculinity can be considered in one of two ways, one option is that it is a component of the male psyche that is dangerous and should be repressed and discouraged. Promoters of this viewpoint suggest that if masculinity is discouraged the level of violence will decrease. Alternatively, masculinity is an empowering part of males, that helps them to grow and develop and is an important part of how males perceive themselves in society. Under this theory, men can experience significant anxiety when their ability to be masculine is restricted, and this may lead to violence as an attempt to regain masculinity. Consequently, this viewpoint suggests that repressing and discouraging masculinity in males may promote violence in many men as a method trying to regain a sense of self. Masculine images In modern day society men are constantly exposed to highly masculine images . Images of highly masculine men are constantly on display, such as David Beckham or Hulk Hogan . The prevalence of masculinity anxiety has lead to the development of the phenomena of exaggerated masculinity. This is a version of a male that is strongly violent and aggressive, much more so than the traditional models of male behaviour . This can act to increase feelings of masculinity anxiety for males, as many feel that they cannot live up to these images, and are a failure, or less of a man for not being able to do so. Conclusion In modern society, males face pressure from a wide range of sources not to act in a masculine manner. Feminists argue that many aspects of masculinity should be discouraged, as they lead to a hatred of females, and to violence. Furthermore, the current economy makes being a man difficult, as males often lack the ability to support themselves and their families, and may lose their homes or families in the process. Because of this, many men experience a high degree of anxiety over masculinity, and their inability to provide or feel like a man. This can result in violence, as men attempt to find ways to regain a feeling of masculinity. The focus of research and discussion needs to shift away from condemning masculinity and towards determining methods of reducing masculinity anxiety in males. Works Cited Cohan, S. & Hark, I. R. (eds.) (1993). Screening the Male: Exploring Masculinities in Hollywood Cinema, London: Routledge. Connell, R. W. (2005). Masculinities, Berkley, CA, University of California Press, 3-33. Croson, R. & Gneezy, U. (2009). Gender Differences in Preferences. Journal of Economic Literature, 47, 1-27. Cross, S. & Bagilhold, B. (2002). Girl's Jobs for the Boys? Men, Masculinity and Non-Traditional Occupations. Gender, Work and Organization, 9, 204-226. Devor, H. (1989). Gender Blending: Confronting the Limits of Duality, Indiana University Press, vii-20. Edwards, T. (2006). Cultures of Masculinity, London, Routledge, 1-30. Faludi, S. (1999). Stiffed, London, London, Chatto and Windus, 1-20. 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