Gay Men and Their Eating Disorders - Essay Example

Gay Men and their Eating Disorders Scholarly research depicts that women in most cases report lower levels of outward appearance satisfaction compared to men (Feingold &Mazzella, 1998). However, body image disparagement is increasing amongst men (Lee, Owens, & Glynn, 2002).Perhaps the most striking difference between male and female body image is in the body parts that elicit the most discontent (Cafri& Thompson, 2004). Men are most likely to report dissatisfaction with their muscle size and shape and wish to be more muscular (Garner, 1997). This contrasts with women’s dissatisfaction with weight and wish to be slender. This difference between the slenderness and masculinity reflects the societal view on each gender. According to Stanford & McCabe, women ideal body is both tall and slender. In most cases, women who fail to attain this body structure tend to feel overweight, whereas the ideal body for men is lean and muscular, hence many men feel petite and weak. Body dissatisfaction consistently leads to a reason for dieting (Ogden, 2000) hence posing a major contribution to the development of an eating disorder. Many researches have reported a range of symptoms pertaining eating disorders among gay men and ultimately concluded them to be relatively higher as compared to heterosexual men (Carlat, Camargo, & Herzog, 1997). This essay examines at length plausible explanations to eating disorder in gay men in order to have a better understanding of the differences lying between the two sexual orientations. Homosexuality can be a prominent risk factor for body image problems and eating disorders in men (Feldman and Meyer, 2007).Within the gay community, there is a harsh competition to exemplify the rigid standards of male beauty. This process escalates the common perception among gay men that muscularity has the ability to grant social, sexual desirability and power (Wood, 2004). Similarly, researchers and historians have through publications argued that the spectacular start of this agenda was, in part, an internal response to the early AIDS epidemic and its physical signs. As a result, muscles, tone, and youthfulness are factored as principles in strong contrast to the infirmity associated with the epidemic (Drummond, 2005). Being considered effeminate and weak, gay men strive for what is looked upon as masculinity and power focusing as compensating for their tainted social status (Kimmel &Mahalik, 2005; Wood, 2004). Strong, Singh, and Randall (2000) found out that gay men evidenced high degree of childhood-gender non-conformity as compared to heterosexual men. Moreover, gays’ childhood gender non-conformity was linked with adult body dissatisfaction, without considering the sexual orientation. During their childhood, several gay men were teased or criticized for behaviors, thoughts, and physical characteristics that were considered and characterized as feminine, “weak,” or gender non-conforming (Strong et al., 2000; Wood, 2004). Along these lines, research clearly proves that internalized homophobia, also referred to as internalized homo-negativity instigates from an internalization of anti-gay stigma. Gay men experience this condition if they live in the same residence with a heterosexual society (Kimmel & Mahalik, 2005). To a large extend, internalized homophobia may contribute to gay men’s perception of their bodies (Halkitis et al., 2004; Kimmel &Mahalik, 2005). Body image and masculinity are also inextricably tied to gay men’s sexuality. To gay men, “Sexual prowess” can be and ideal and a source of validation for their masculinity. As a result, it has been linked with intentional sexual risk taking (Halkitis et al., 2004). Media plays a significant role in creating ideal body image for men by putting a huge emphasis on youthful, toned, and muscular male bodies. Especially in gay subculture, physical appearance plays a significant role. Gay men may feel pressured to conform, which can ultimately influence self-esteem and body image satisfaction (Yager, 2000). Since men are conditioned not to care or at least not to “whine” about how they look, they often suffer in silence or address the “problem” by buying a product designed to enhance their physical appearance (Pope et al., 2000). Homoerotic images of scantily clad, sexual men with flawless bodies have become the standard to sell products (Harvey & Robinson, 2003). It is believed that audiences internalize messages expressed in media. It is quite possible that on seeing such an idealized imagery, gay men will develop the belief that they must look like the models if they have to achieve sexual gratification (Duggan & McCreary, 2004). From the same literature, if gay and heterosexual men purchase and view muscle and fitness magazines, chances of correlating positively with levels of body dissatisfaction are high. In addition, a positive correlation exists between pornography disclosure and social physique nervousness for gay men. Interestingly, in gay pornography, the male body receives more attention in terms of close-ups, and greater emphasis is placed on the attractiveness of the male body, than in heterosexual pornography (Duggan & McCreary, 2004). When Drummond interviewed his participants, these men further argued that the media also creates the notion that to be successful, they must not only look like these models themselves, but they must also be able to attract another man who looks like them (Drummond, 2005). However, this idealized figure does not occur overnight. In essence, it needs commitment and persistence. It requires years of physical training, a strict diet, and often, use of additional substances such as steroids (Harvey & Robinson, 2003). Eating restriction in pursuit of slenderness and an ideal body shape may be evolutionary adapted to compete intrasexual ly for status and ultimately for mates (Faer, Hendriks, Abed & Figueredo, 2005). Across species, a primary function of competing with members of ones own sex is to attract viable mates. Indeed, for human males and females, tactics for competing intrasexual ly for status are essentially mate attraction tactics (Walters & Crawford, 1994). Because men value cues of youth and fertility in their mates (Symons, 1979), women on the other hand compete intrasexual ly on physical attractiveness for status.This perspective can be applied in the case of gay men whom their subsequent partners are men. Scholarly research depicts that gay men are of no difference from heterosexual women who respond to intrasexual competition cues by competing on slenderness to increase their status as desirable mates. Nevertheless, the constant demands to stay slender and in shape do not decrease once a gay male has found a sexual partner. Unlike heterosexuals who meet a significant other, marry him or her, and then tend to lose some concern for their physical appearance, gay men’s relationships are not at any cost guaranteed to be life-long. Harvey and Robinson (2003) argue that factors that are important in mate selection for heterosexuals, such as being able to have children and provide for a family, are not considerably important for homosexuals. This decreased number of criteria for mate selection places more importance on the remaining factors thus further increasing the importance of being physically attractive.The chronic pressure and anxiety to maintain the body shape may lead gay men to body image obsession and eventually eating disorder. In accordance with the meta-analysis examination about the relationship between gender roles and eating disorders in females, Murnen and Smolak (1997) analyzed how women are perceived to have higher levels of eating disorders had appreciably higher expressiveness (feminine personality traits) scores compared to those with less eating pathology. They further analyzed those women who exemplified high levels of eating disorders consequently possessed low levels of instrumental (i.e., masculine personality traits) compared to those who had less eating disorder. Consequently, it can be depicted that the level of expressivity and instrumentality entirely corresponds to the rate of eating pathology. Lakkis, Ricciardelli & Williams, (1999) explain in their publication the reason as to why expressivity is associated with higher eating disorders by using the femininity hypothesis. This hypothesis depicts that stereotypically feminine personality traits such as passivity, dependence, and unassertiveness relate entirely to a desire of seeking approval from others thus leading to poor self-esteem. Individuals who adhere to this orientation may finally end up utilizing excessive restriction, purging, or other extreme methods in order to obtain an idealized body that would theoretically achieve others’ approval. According to Liben & Bigler, (2002), men who exhibit high levels of orthodox feminine personalities apparently depict an unordinary gender orientation. For instance, men are expected to exhibit high levels of stereotypical male traits and behaviors and ultimately avoid stereotypically female attributes. Consequently, it can be depicted that high levels of expressivity in men not only correspond to personality characteristics (e.g., passivity, social sensitivity) that may prejudice them to eating disorders and body dissatisfaction but also stigma associated with being gender atypical. This may further increase general psychological distress. According to Wichstrøm (2006), expressivity positively predicts bulimic symptoms. This therefore leaves no doubt of the possibility that expressivity plays a more important role concerning psychological distress for gay men compared to their heterosexual peers. Many factors such as values in gay community, internalized homophobia, media, intrasexual competition, and stereotypes may at length explain why gay men have lower body esteem scores. Further, these factors may also elucidate why gay men have higher scores on the Eating Disorders Inventory (on drive for slenderness, bulimia, and body dissatisfaction), and greater concerns for physical attractiveness than heterosexual men. Eating disorder developed in each individual may occur from different causes. Therefore, in order to ensure and plan for successful treatments for all patients with eating disorders, it is important to understand the differences underlying each sexual orientation and understand in depth the origins of the eating disorder. References Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Measuring male body image: A review of the Current methodology. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 5, 18–29. Carlat, D. J., Camargo, C. A., Jr., & Herzog, D. B. (1997). Eating dis- orders in males: A report on 135 patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1127-1132. Drummond, M.J.N. (2005). Men’s bodies: Listening to the voices of young gay men. Men and Masculinities, 7(3), 270-290. Faer, L. M., Hendriks, A., Abed, R. T., &Figueredo, A. J. (2005). The evolutionary psychology of eating disorders: Female competition for mates or for status? Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 78, 397␣417. Feingold, A., &Mazzella, R. (1998). Gender differences in body image are increasing. Psychological Science, 9, 190– 195. Feldman, M., & Meyer, I. (2007b). Eating disorders in diverse lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 40(3), 218–226. Garner, D. M. (1997). The 1997 body image survey results. Psychology Today, 30, 30-84. Halkitis, P.N., Green, K.A., & Wilton, L. (2004). Masculinity, body image, and sexual behavior in HIV-seropositive gay men: A two-phase formative behavioral investigation using the internet. International Journal of Men’s Health, 3(1), 27-42. Harvey, J., & Robinson, J. (2003). Eating disorders in men: Current considerations. Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 10(4), 297–306. Kimmel, S.B., &Mahalik, J.R. (2005) Body image concerns of gay men: The roles of minority stress and conformity to masculine norms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(6), 1185-1190. Lakkis, J., Ricciardelli, L. A., & Williams, R. J. (1999). Role of sexual orientation and gender-related traits in disordered eating. Sex Roles, 41, 1–16. Lee, C., Owens, E., & Glynn, R. (2002). Issues for a psychology of men’s health. Journal of Health Psychology, 7, 209– 217. Liben, L. S., &Bigler, R. S. (2002). The developmental course of gender differentiation: Conceptualizing, measuring, and evaluating constructs and pathways. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67(2), 1–147. Murnen, S. K., &Smolak, L. (1997). Femininity, masculinity, and disordered eating: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 22, 231–242. Ogden, J. (2000). The correlates of long-term weight loss: A group comparison study of obesity. International Journal of Obesity & Related Metabolic Disorders, 24, 1018– 1025. Pope, H. G., Jr., Gruber, A. J., Mangweth, B., Bureau, B., de Col, C., Jouvent, R., et al. (2000). Body image perception among men in three countries. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1297-1301. Scott J. Duggan PhD (cand.) & Donald R. McCreary PhD (2004): Body Image, Eating Disorders, and the Drive for Muscularity in Gay and Heterosexual Men. Journal of Homosexuality, 47:3-4, 45-58 Stanford, J. N., & McCabe, M. P. (2002). AT Body Image Ideal among Males and Females: Sociocultural Influences and Focus on Different Body Parts. Journal of Health Psychology, 7, 675–684. Strong, S.M., Singh, D., & Randall, P.K. (2000). Childhood gender nonconformity and body dissatisfaction in gay and heterosexual men. Sex Roles, 43(7/8), 427-439. Symons, D. (1979). The evolution of human sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. Walters, S., & Crawford, C. B. (1994). The importance of mate attraction for intrasexual competition in men and women. Ethology and Sociobiology,15, 5-30. Wichstrøm, L. (2006). Sexual orientation as a risk factor for bulimic symptoms. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39, 448–453. Wood, M.J. (2004). The gay male gaze: Body image disturbance and gender oppression among gay men. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 17(2), 43-62. Yager, J. (2000). Weighty perspectives: Contemporary challenges in obesity and eating disorders. American Journal Psychiatry, 157, 851–853. Read More