Genocide And Crimes Against Humanity - Research Paper Example

Genocide And Crimes Against Humanity Table of Contents Part I 2 Definitions 2 Convention on the Prevention and the Punishment of the Crime of Genocide 4 Cases of Genocide 5 Rwanda Genocide Case and the CPPCG 6 Part II 7 Brief Summary to the Genocide in Rwanda 7 Background Events 9 The Events of the Genocide 11 The Rectification Process 15 The Aftermath 17 Conclusion 19 References 21 Bibliography 26 Part I Definitions Raphael Lemkin, a Jewish sociologist, deduced the term ‘Genocide’ in the year 1944. The term ‘genos’ in Greek means family, tribe or race and the term ‘cide’ means to kill. Thus, in simple words genocide implies to kill people belonging to a family, a tribe or a race. In more organised way, the term genocide can be defined as a conscious killing of people in respect to their ethnicity, nationality, race, religion and sometimes even politics. But there is a huge debate on the definition of genocide. For example, some believes political murders are part of genocide whereas some beg to differ. Raphael Lemkin described in his own words the meaning of ‘genocide’. He explained the term in the Geneva Conventions as an act which does not generally signify the instant demolition of a country, apart from when consummated by group killings of every member of a country. It is planned rather to indicate a synchronized arrangement of diverse actions aiming at the devastation of essential basics of the existence of general groups, with the goal of devastating the group among their own. The reason behind such a planning is to disintegrate the social and political institutions, of civilizations, speech, general integration, religious convictions and the monetary survival of the endangered groups. It also affects the personal security, dignity, productivity, wellbeing, liberty and even the life of an individual who belong to such a group. Though most of the scholars regard opine for the similar meaning, still there are certain minute details which most of the social scientists tend to differ. Mostly, it takes into account killing or murdering members of a group, inflicting stern physical or psychological damage to a member of a particular group, intentionally targeting on the cluster situation of existence designed to fetch about the bodily damage wholly or partially, striking measures planned to avoid births within the set, compulsorily moving or relocating children of any group to some other group. Again, Genocide, as explained above, does not mean mass-murder (or any sort of murder) nor is each occurrence of mass-murder essentially means genocide. Neither is the participation of an administration required. The term 'genocide' is also occasionally used in a vast way as for example sometimes slavery was considered as genocide but this usage differs from the lawful meaning set by the United Nations. A lot of research works have been done on this topic by various social scientists and historians and they came out with different descriptions of genocide. The famous social scientists Chalk & Jonasohn noted in the book, they wrote ‘The History and Sociology of Genocide’ genocide to be a structure of unfair group assassination in that a nation or other power has the will to wipe out a community, as that cluster and sponsorship within it are clear by the executor. Again Charny, in his book ‘Conceptual and Historical Dimensions’ explained genocide as a persistent focused act by a performer to bodily annihilate a community indirectly or directly, through prohibition of the genetic and social duplication of collection, sustained in spite of the submission or need of hazard accessible by the sufferer. Convention on the Prevention and the Punishment of the Crime of Genocide Article 3 of the CPPCG Act states that not only the act of genocide is punishable under the eyes of law but also a conspiracy or a plot to commit genocide is punishable as direct and indirect arousal to commit genocide is also punishable. Even an attempt made or an involvement in genocide is a punishable offence. Article 4 states that all individual, bodies or organization involved in inflicting genocide would be punishable. And these punishable offences are not to be treated as political mischief for the reason of banishment. Article 11 of that Act states that the convention will exist till 31 December 1949, for the mark of any associate belonging to the UN and of any nation who is not a member to which a request to mark has been recommended by the General Assembly. The Convention has to be approved, and the details of approval would have to be submitted to the United Nation’s Secretary General. Subsequent to 1 January 1950, the meeting could be visited by any member nations or even by any nations which are not a member. All such details are to be submitted or to be informed to the United Nation’s Secretary General. Cases of Genocide The colonization of Australia had been a major event in this regard. Australia was a land of aboriginal people but later colonies started growing and these aboriginal people were getting neglected, which caused a conflict between these native of the land and the colonial people. Another incident is that of the stolen generations, where the children of the Australian aboriginal people were removed from them by order of the Australian federal and state governments. The Armenian massacre also sometimes termed as ‘The Great Crime’ witnessed to the deliberate and systematic destruction on the people of Armenia of the Ottoman Empire at the time of World War I. The number of dead almost reached one and half million of people. The Cambodian genocide occurred in the period of Khmer Rouge. This period was categorized with political unrest and turbulence in the nation. There were mass murders, starvation and even forced labor. Bosnia and Herzegovina faced a crisis when Serbia allegedly attempted to wipe out Muslim population from Bosnia. Kosovo’s genocide saw Yugoslavian armies sent to conquest Albania and to drive out Albanians from their state. It saw mass murders and racial abuses. It was actually the prolonged act of the Bosnian case of genocide. In Rwanda & Brundi’s genocide, there was a political disturbance between the two groups of people namely the Hutu and the Tutsi. It categorized mass killings of the either group both in the years of 1962 and 1993. Genocide in East Timor occurred when Indonesia declared East Timor a province of its own. With such declarations, acts of mass murders, racial tortures, starvation and unemployment accompanied with forced labor for over 25 years. Rwanda Genocide Case and the CPPCG In order to combat with the conspicuous occurrences of genocide and crimes of war, the United Nations has decided to set up Tribunals. The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is one such ad hoc tribunal set up for inflicting the Rwandan genocide in the year of 1994. Former Prime Minister Jean Kambanda, and industrialist and militia leader of the Hutu tribe, Omar Serushago, and even the Mayor Jean-Paul Akayesu was found responsible of genocide, and even Kambanda was found convicted of genocide and several inhumane actions and therefore is serving life imprisonment. Furthermore many other higher government officials have been held in charge and are arrested, which also included the former ministers of foreign affairs, information, education, health, commerce and industry, as well as civil service. As it was an internal stuff, a crime inflicted to their own community as a result of domestic violence, their trial sets an imperative example for the submission of international humanitarian justice. The case of Rwandan genocide would be discussed in due length in the next part. Part II Brief Summary to the Genocide in Rwanda The genocide in Rwanda took place in the year of 1994. It was categorized with mass murder of an approximated figure of above 800, 000 people. It was actually 20% of the total population in Rwanda. And all these mass murders were undertaken only within 4 months. There were tensions between two tribes namely the Hutus and the Tutsi, which was the source of all the genocides that occurred in Rwanda, but the major reason for the mass killing was the assassination of the then president of Rwanda, Mr. Juvénal Habyarimana. The original pressure started from the year of 1990, when majority of the Tutsi refugees who made a group called the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), attacked Rwanda and penetrated in their borders from Uganda. This was the beginning of the civil war which lasted for about 3 years. It was basically a war between these two powerful tribes but was also supported from other nations. In one hand, there was the Hutu tribe which was supported by the Francophone nations of Africa and also France. On the other side RPF, composed mainly of Tutsi refugees was supported by the Uganda. This event featured a political & social eruption in Rwanda and nearby nations and subsequently, the Hutu tribe emerged out powerfully. The long civil war ended in the year 1993 with a cease fire and as a result a treaty was signed between the Govt. of Rwanda and the RPF, which is called as the ‘Arusha Accords’. There was a psychological tension building up in Rwanda and Burundi but the assassination of Mr. Juvénal Habyarimana was the major factor or can be stated as the ignition for the occurrence of the genocide. The story behind the murder was that Habyarimana supported the Hutu movement which was disliked by the Tutsi’s. He died in a plane crash which was considered to be a conspiracy of the RPF. But there is another side of the story which states the crash was conducted by the Hutu’s itself, so as to provoke anti-Tutsi indignation, thereby seizing their power. The death of Habyarimana kindled a lethal spree initiated by the majority Hutus against their arc rivals, the Tutsis and also against those Hutus who turned their back on the government. Just within 100 days of the assassination, more than 800000 of the Rwandan people were murdered. It is considered that behind the mass killings there was two Hutu militant organizations namely the Interahamwe and the Impuzamugambi or to be more specifically the mass killings were carried out by these two groups but the head behind these mass murders were a group known as the Azaku. The Azaku were actually the relatives of the assassinated president Habyarimana. They did not want to share the government with the Tutsi basically the RPF which inflicted the revolt and the mass murders. The mass murders resulted in the break of the Arusha Accords and the powerful Tutsi army basically the RPF by force seized the control of the nation (Spalding, 2008). Background Events It all began in the year 1918 when under the Treaty of Versailles the state which was colonized by the Germans, was made a nation to be governed by Belgium. The two regions which later become Rwanda and Burundi were being administered by two monasteries both belonging to the Tutsi community. The first step towards the future massacre was the division of caste system which was generally undertaken by the Germans and the Belgians. The Hutu and the Tutsi were segregated as two classes. Tutsi were less in population having a minority of only 14% whereas the Hutu had 85% of the population strength. But the irony was that most of the powers were vested in the hands of the Tutsi by the Belgian govt. so that they have control over the regime. This was the beginning (Hecht, n.d.). But the revolt was starting to take a shape in the year of 1957, when the Hutu tribe formed a party called as the ‘PARMEHUTU’ and published their manifesto in which they mentioned about the unlawful power which was vested in the hands of the Tutsi’s and how they use it for their favor. In result to this blames, the monarch rule was overthrown and there was an establishment of a republic in the year of 1960. Rwanda and Burundi become two separate and independent states. Though, it was a republic but now there came the transfer of power from the hand of Tutsi’s to the Hutu’s. During that time the Tutsi were treated very badly on the account of which most of them had to flee in the neighboring states. This practice was extended for over a period of 30 years before the civil war begun. Not only there was disturbance in Rwanda but it also affected Burundi and it saw a well executed genocide in the year of 1972 where Hutu’s were killed mercilessly by the forces of the Tustsi. Half of the populace belonging to the Tutsi was staying outside Rwanda. With due course of time, the Tutsi people who fled from the nation organized themselves into military groups. Most of the people were organized during the Ugandan Bush War and from then they formed a separate group to fight for their rights. Another important factor which provoked such revolts was the publishing of the journal ‘Kangura’ which was basically a Hutu led and was a counter defense to the RPF led journal named as the ‘Kanguka’. The ‘Kangura’ contained certain messages for the Hutus which was very illicit towards the Tutsi’s. Even it was popularized at the schools and also made a great impact on the minds of the Hutu army. These journals were published during the time of the civil war. The civil war came to a halt in the year of 1993 with intervention from the other states basically Tanzania. A peace deal was signed named as the Arusha Accords between the Govt. of Rwanda and the RPF. Even the United Nations sent their troops to the terror struck areas so as to regain peace and restore security. The tension was somewhat stable after the civil war but the actual event of the assassination of Habyarimana was the major turning point which created the turbulence in Rwanda. It eventually led to the worst ever genocide in the history of modern civilization (Greenawalt, 1999). The Events of the Genocide The killings that started after the murder of the president Habyarimana were very lethal and well organized. The Hutu grew themselves in numbers and more and more of them started joining the militia. The condition was such that at least one member from a family became a militia. Their numbers grew to 30,000. They were equipped with latest ammunitions such as AK 47 and also had grenade at their disposals. Member of the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi group mostly used machetes for their murders. The situation was discussed in the cabinet meetings but most of the politicians were in favor of the genocide. They all wanted to eliminate the Tutsi’s from their land. All had the same ideology that the Tutsi were the major source of all their problems and the problems in Rwanda. If they could be eliminated then all the problems would go. Many of the top officials, politicians, policemen were behind the genocide. It was a communal war which had no limitations. Identification cards were distributed to both Tutsi and Hutu people so that they can be differentiated. The time was such that even the lives of Hutu were endangered if they did not posses the card. The militant group Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi can ask for a sudden check for the card. The failure of possession of the card could lead to adverse circumstance. Several people were murdered in this way. There was one more differentiation through which the people could discriminate themselves and that was through the color of the skin and the physical nature. Tutsi people had a duskier complexion than the Hutu community who were very dark. So in many cases tortures were made just on the grounds of skin color. Many of the times, Tutsi members were made the slave of the Hutu community. There were physical, psychological and mental tortures inflicted on the Tutsi people all over the region. People were killed in broad day light on the main roads. Majority of the Tutsi people had to flee in the neighboring countries and who could not had to give their life in the hands of the Hutu people. There was devastation and massacre all over the region. People for days had to hide in their home and in secret compartments. If found they were tortured and then mercilessly murdered. If not the Tutsi people were murdered in the hands of the Hutu, they died because of hunger and diseases. The conditions over there were in humane. People turned out to be demons. Murder and killing became their favorite past time. The majority of the mass murders were executed by the youths of the Hutu tribe. Though the orders came from the upper officials but the execution was made in a cold blooded way by the Hutu youths. They engaged in killing and all sort of criminal activities. Though killing was one aspect of the genocide, another aspect which can also be termed as genocide was the rape being made on the Tutsi women of all ages by the Hutu male population, basically the members of Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi group (Brandeis University, 2009). During the event of genocide, many Tutsi’s took refuge in local church, schools and different embassies. But the Hutu people did not spare any Tutsi. They would often invade those places and kill all the people hiding. The communication between the Hutu members was made basically through radio. Local people would inform the Interahamwe about the hide outs of these people and they would come in numbers and kill the people. There were several instances that if a particular building is not accessible, the Interahamwe would run down the building with bulldozers creating mass destructions. Basically the people had either two choices, either to accept death or to flee away from the nation. Fleeing was also not easy because the Interahamwe would continuously patrol all the major roads and areas all the time. So, trying to flee also would mean risking their lives. People would hide in numbers in small rooms and would not speak in fear of getting caught. The situation was terrible and there was no hope to be seen. With days the situation became worse in that area. It was a conscious effort made by the Hutu group to destroy the ethnicity of the Tutsi group by raping the women belonging to the Tutsi group. This was actually termed as the war rape. These rapes were made from no legal or formal orders but sources say that the military leaders encouraged those in their group to commit sexual violence on the Tutsi group. It is also said that the orders also mentioned that, no Hutu should stop another from committing such act otherwise the life of that people can also be in danger. This act was amongst the most lethal and violent in the history of modern civilization. Everything was publically taking place and there was no one to stop such violence. And even who thought of stopping such violence feared of their safety. An UN study shows that more than 300,000 women have fell victim to such rape in Rwanda. Another study shows that all women who survived the genocide were either directly affected by the genocide or have affected their lives in a severe way. Most of the surviving women became victim to the rape committed at least once in the turbulent period. There was no discrimination of age while performing such acts. All the female population of the Tutsi group was targeted in this massacre. Sometimes, even some of the Hutu women and girls were victim to such act. Those who were considered as the moderates were targeted but the acts took place on the will of the Hutu youths. Mostly beautiful women or girls from the community were only targeted. Threat and violence were at its worst stage in Rwanda. Some times even the men were sexually assaulted. The assault against the male population of the Tutsi was also brutal. They were mercilessly killed. The torture made before the murder were more painful than the death. Basically behind all these acts the major executor was the Interahamwe. But they were not the only one who inflicted this peril. They were later joined by the Rwandan Armed Force (RAF) and also local people belonging to the Hutu tribe. The violence was wide spread throughout Rwanda. Tutsi people were living a life of danger. The Interahamwe would often invade the house belonging to the Tutsi and kill anyone if found present. Most of the people would hide in secret places. Even though majority of the Hutu people were against the Tutsi, but there were few good people who sheltered few Tutsi in their home, to save their lives (Vandeginste, 1999). The Rectification Process The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) was one of the pioneers in trying to stop such massacre. They contributed a lot in stopping mass killings and war rape. Though their contribution towards stopping the genocide can never be undermined but primarily they were present just to rescue foreign nationals from the terror inflicted place. Many of the incidents occurred when the Tutsi group was murdered due to the evacuation of the UNAMIR forces from a particular building. Lt. General Roméo Dallaire was the person behind the actions of the UNAMIR. Though he received orders from other high officials but it was under his supervision the whole act was been done. But there were acts of negligence made by several governments including government of the neighboring states of Africa and even the super powerful nations. If corrective or preventive actions were taken in the correct time several of lives of the people who were killed in the genocide could have been saved. There were allegations against the French government that they took active part in the genocide that occurred in Rwanda. They were also alleged of training the Hutu war militants to exterminate people. Even it was seen that many of the French soldiers deployed in the terror struck place were themselves engaged in killing the Tutsi people and raping the women of that community. The motive behind such acts was strengthening of the ‘Francophone Nations’. The invasion made by the RPF from the neighboring state of Uganda, which was an ‘Anglophone Nation’. The French took the invasion as a threat towards their national pride and an invasion of the English. Thus, they took side of the Hutu national who composed majority of the people living in Rwanda and the RPF were mainly composed of Tutsi people. So their reason to take side with the Hutu was obvious (Totten, 2009). The US government of that time under the president ship of Bill Clinton was a bit reluctant in sending their troops in Rwanda to manage the situation. Even Bill Clinton later declared in a speech that he did never take the happenings in Rwanda as genocide at the beginning. He also regretted upon the fact that if he would have been wise enough to send more 5000 US soldiers then around lives of 500000 Tutsi could be saved. The UN also reacted late to the events when at least of 500000 people were killed, they agreed to send 5500 troops to Rwanda from the neighboring African states. If it would have been sent before, life of many could have been saved. Even much time was wasted, regarding negotiations with the US Army regarding price of Armored Personal Carrier (ACP). But the major work was done by the RPF to stop the genocide killing in Rwanda. They set an offensive battle against the Interahamwe. They were only successful nearly after three months, but by that time the harm to mankind was already done. They defeated the Interahamwe and forced them to flee to Zaire. Several civilians mostly the Hutu fled to Zaire with the militants but over there they were faced to hunger and diseases. The Zaire government asked them to return to Rwanda but they feared of death upon returning to Rwanda. The exiles in Zaire were filled with such people. In Rwanda the peace was restored with the cease-fire and coalition government came in power which represented both Hutu and Tutsi ethnic people. The trials against genocide took a long time to surface, but many people who were convicted were arrested and prosecuted. Thus, slowly and steadily, peace was restored in Rwanda but the harm done can never be forgotten (Yacoubian, 2006) The Aftermath Nearly 800000 people were killed in the mass murders. And if they were not killed they died of hunger and diseases. Same was the case with the Hutu people who fled to Zaire after the RPF defeated the Interahamwe. Most of the people who fled died in the refugee camps fighting with several diseases mostly that of cholera and dysentery. Nearly 600000 people retreated from Zaire in 1996 after the First Congo War. It was estimated that during the genocide more than 10,000 of the people were murdered every day. Another estimate shows that only 300,000 Tutsis could come out safe from the genocide. Among them the most were women who were not killed but mostly were subjected to rape. Most of them were fighting with AIDS. The number of orphans were as alarming as 400,000 and among them most were the result of the war rapes (ICTR Newsletter, 1999). In the political field also the peace was restored with a much sought coalition government. Paul Kagame became the President of Rwanda. The government constituted members from both group, the Hutu as well as the Tutsi. But the biggest impact was made in the social and economic fields. The problems were from all spheres of the society. There were problems with the accommodation of the people, problem with the food, problem with medical conditions. Even the population in the prison were rising by substantial numbers per day. So, the government had to make some arrangements in this situation. The conditions worsened with the retreat of the Hutu people from Zaire and even the Interahamwe militants. Another concern for the society was the after effect of the war rape in Rwanda. In many instances those who became victim of the war rape were isolated from the society and in many cases the husbands left their wives. Other side effects of this war rape were unwanted pregnancies which added much tension to the situation. Not only that several people were infected with sexually transmitted diseases. The medical condition of the country were not modernised, thus many lot their life battling such diseases. Another concerning issue was the distrust among the both group much after the genocide occurred. During the event of the genocide, neighbours killed their neighbours and raped their women. So there were distrust from both the sides that whether this incident could happen again. So there stood a big barrier in the social development of the country. The Tutsi were very repulsive of the Hutus. Due to social implications, the economic conditions of the nation also hampered and there was no growth. The resources were mostly spend on the reconstruction work made in the society (Card & Masubian, 2008) Conclusion The Rwanda genocide was one of the black events that occurred in the history of man kind. There have been many instances when there has been threat to mankind. There has been rivalry among the races since the primeval period, which continues till date. With time, this rivalry between races has only grown. One such example was the Rwanda genocide case where the Hutu tribe killed more than 800000 of Tutsi people in just 100 days. Not just killing but even severe crimes like rape were made. It is clearly evident from the facts that the destructions made were very brutal. It does not only harm the physical entity but also the psychological existence of mankind. Organisations are mushrooming to promote peace and security of individual and groups all over the world, but still no deep impact can be made. If it would have been so then shameful and devastating incidents like this could not have taken place. Violence in any sense or form is bad and when it is in the name of races it is worse. Thus, it can be said without doubt every possible measures need to be inducted to stop genocide (Russell & Brown, 2002). References American University Washington College of Law, 2010. Law of Armed Conflict / International Humanitarian Law. National Institute of Military Justice. [Online] Available at: http://www.wcl.american.edu/nimj/international_hum_law.cfm [Accessed August 09, 2010]. Brandeis University, 2009. 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[Online] Available at: http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/hrj/iss21-2/241-280.pdf [Accessed Aug 09, 2010]. Greenawalt, A. K. A., 1999. Rethinking Genocidal Intent: The Case for a Knowledge-Based Interpretation. Pace University. [Online] Available at: http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1337&context=lawfaculty [Accessed August 20, 2010]. Hecht, J., No Date. Memory, Myth-Making, and their Implications For Ethnic Genocide. [Online] Available at:.http://www.dartmouth.edu/~worldoutlook/archives/spring08/hecht_genocide.pdf [Accessed Aug 20, 2010]. Institute for the Study of Genocide, 2001. Social Scientists' Definitions of Genocide. Definitions. [Online] Available at: http://www.instituteforthestudyofgenocide.org/oldsite/definitions/def_genocide.html [Accessed August 09, 2010]. ICTR Newsletter., 2007. [Online] Available at: http://ictr-archive09.library.cornell.edu/ENGLISH/newsletter/may07/may07.pdf [Accessed Aug 20, 2010]. Monroe., No Date. Combating Genocide. [Online] Available at: http://www.ethicscenter.uci.edu/pdf_documents/combating.pdf [Accessed Aug 20, 2010]. Russell & Brown., 2002. A U.N. SOLUTION TO A PROBLEM FROM HELL. [Online] Available at: http://law.wustl.edu/wugslr/issues/Volume2_2/p427Russell-Brown.pdf [Accessed Aug 20, 2010]. Rummel, R. J., No Date. Genocide. University of Hawai‘i. [Online] Available at: http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/GENOCIDE.ENCY.HTM [Accessed August 09, 2010]. Schabas, W. A., 2008. Convention for the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. United Nations Treaty Collection. [Online] Available at: http://untreaty.un.org/cod/avl/pdf/ha/cppcg/cppcg_e.pdf [Accessed August 20, 2010]. Totten, S., 2009. Reporting from Rwanda Dispatch #6. [Online] Available at: http://coehp.uark.edu/7325.htm [Accessed Aug 20, 2010]. University of New Mexico., 2005. Path towardsReconcilation. [Online] Available at: https://repository.unm.edu/dspace/bitstream/1928/2574/1/Johnson_submission%20August%202005.pdf [Accessed Aug 09, 2010]. Vandeginste, S., 1999. Justice, Reconciliation And Reparation After Genocide And Crimes Against Humanity: The Proposed Establishment Of popular Gacaca Tribunals In Rwanda. University of Texas Libraries. [Online] Available at: http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/4570/3666.pdf?sequence=1 [Accessed August 09, 2010]. WordiQ, 2010. Genocide – Definition. Genocide. [Online] Available at: http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Genocide [Accessed August 09, 2010]. Yacoubian. Jr., G. S., 2006. Releasing accused genocidal perpetrators in rwanda: the displacement of preventive justice. Loyola University Chicago. [Online] Available at: http://www.luc.edu/law/activities/publications/ilrdocs/vol3_no1/pdfs/yacoubian.pdf [Accessed August 20, 2010]. Bibliography Barnett, M. N. Eyewitness to a genocide: the United Nations & Rwanda. Cornell University Press. 2003. Horowitz, I. L. Genocide: State power & Mass murder. Transaction Publishers. 1976. Jones, A. Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction. Taylor & Francis. 2010. Kuperman, A. J. The limits of humanitarian intervention: genocide in Rwanda. Brookings Institution Press. 2001. Shaw, M. What is Genocide?. Polity. 2007. Spalding, F. Genocide in Rwanda. The Rosen Publishing group. 2008. Weitz, E. D. A century of genocide. Princeton University Press. 2003. Read More