Functionalist Perspectives Advanced by Comte, Spencer, and Durkheim - Case Study Example

Organization and Management Theory A Case Study Introduction Various philosophical theories have been developed over history in seeking to create a context in which to understand the dynamics of organizations. With the advent of industrialization, the modernist-positivist viewpoint prevailed, which viewed society in terms that may be observed and defined by scientific inquiry. Society and organizations were viewed through the metaphor of biology, with each part comprising a functional organ that, combined with other parts, will form an integrated and viable whole, functioning smoothly as one. The succeeding post-modernist perspective, on the other hand, negates the existence of absolute and verifiable truth that may be observed with clinical precision. It instead espoused the chameleon-like variability of truth, and that different men may perceive different truths depending upon the social environment in which they operate. In this case study, these ideas shall be applied to certain situations excerpted from the book by Polly Toynbee entitled Hard Work: Life in Low-pay Britain. In this book Toynbee expounds on the difficulties of those who slave at low-paying jobs in Britain. It also gives the reader insight into the social dynamics of Britain’s work force, and a glimpse at the practical applications of the various organization and management theories. Functionalist Perspectives (advanced, among others, by Comte, Spencer and Durkheim) Functionalism is described as a theory that organizations are made up of groups that each perform particular functions, and that stability is attained through the equilibrium or balance attained among these functions. Established group structures influence the way humans behave, either forging greater stability or sowing greater instability among groups. The basis of the functionalist perspective, according to Morgan (1982), is the assumption that society has a concrete and real existence, “a systemic character oriented to produce an ordered and regulated state of affairs.” The behaviour of individuals is seen to be bound within the context of concrete and tangible social relationships. In the selection, Toynbee described the job of a porter in a hospital (Toynbee, 2004, p. 70). In this situation, the porters were supplied to the hospital by an agency. She noted with frustration that the type of job tended to keep the porters in a rut, providing little or no initiative for advancement. The porter’s job contract detailed his functions to the last minute task, and the porter may not exercise his prerogative to do other work: “No one could now devise imaginative ways to cross boundaries and use them better, enhance their talents or set them up on training ladders that might develop their motivation and their prospects” (p. 73). With dismay, Toynbee came to understand the “full destruction” that the contract cost by its “atomisation” of the tasks of the porter, in the form of foregone chances for management to break down demarcations and hierarchies, apply a modern teamwork approach which would prove more challenging to workers, and thus achieve greater efficiency. In this case flexibility was foregone to maintain a rigid structure. Functionalism may be divided into the functional and the dysfunctional. Durkheim for instance focused on the necessary and normal features of a healthy and functioning society, and stated that if a social phenomenon is both universal and necessary, then it is normal. From this he concluded that social deviance, therefore, is itself also normal and necessary to society. Deviance contributes to society by helping define social boundaries, strengthening solidarity within a group, allowing for adaptive innovation, and reducing internal social tensions (Lecture 10: The Functionalist Perspective; Krohn, 1978). Toynbee described two types of porters. The first type included Winston and Steve, both young men who were industrious, productive, and aimed at achieving more in life than just working as porters. Frustrated with their stagnation, Winston spoke about going back to school to study IT and doing more for the hospital than he was currently allowed to do. The second type of porter was the complete opposite. Olly was more advanced in years, and given to teasing and bullying. He exhorted his younger colleagues to slow down and take it easy (they were called the “slow down” faction), always picked arguments, usually stood idly about and skulked around, making trouble whenever he could. He played pranks that were counterproductive and pointless, such as holding on to the back of a trolley so the elderly gentleman pushing it had to tug and pull while wondering what has holding it down. In a subsequent speech, Tony Blair was said to express ambivalence concerning public servants (which Toynbee took to mean included the porters). While his cabinet ministers recognized the propriety and even necessity of providing training, incentives, and economic support for workers such as Winston, they however also were aware of the burden created by workers such as Olly. This is an example of the “normality” of deviance Durkheim alluded to. Toynbee averred, “To be sure, every workplace has its Olly quota of shirkers and grumblers but in this hospital, among the porters, nurses and clinic staff, the enthusiastic, well-motivated Winstons I came across outnumbered the Ollys ten to one” (p. 71). Thus in society, deviants are always to be expected, and should be distinguished from the rest who regularly perform their role according to and exceeding standard expectations. Postmodern Perspectives (advanced by Focault, Jenks, Derrida) Postmodern teachings reject any notion that absolute and universal truths exist, such as God and science. It teaches that the organization structure is in itself a system of power (Lynch & Cruise, 2006, p. 39). Focault, for instance, taught that power resides not in a sovereign, but in ourselves, and each person is his own overseer. He imposes his own discipline by exercising surveillance over himself and against himself. In the book, chapter 10, entitled “Cold-Calling,” described working in what the author called the modern day sweatshops and slave galleries – the call centres, where the workers were “chained to their desks by their headsets” (Toynbee, 2003, p. 151) The work entailed making cold calls – that is, first-time chance telephone calls to establishments and individuals who may turn out to be potential customers for the company (in this case, a cleaning and janitorial services firm Toynbee, “Clean Direct”). In this job, Toynbee was given a script to follow when making calls. The script called for her to stretch the truth to favourably portray the company’s rates, its intentions, and its capabilities while pragmatically assessing the profit generating potential of this customer. They were coached to quote lower costs when they know fully well that there are several hidden costs foisted upon the unwary customer. Toynbee also learned that a telesales representative who “canoodled and giggled, sympathised and made excruciatingly lame jokes,” despite the glaring and shameless deception played upon the customer, nevertheless is able to “oozle and bamboozle” his way to chalk up record sales that earned bonuses for the caller. It is seen here that the supervisor does not impose real and vigilant control over subordinates, but each subordinate exercises his own prerogative in dealing with customers over the phone. The reward is granted only upon the show of results of work, not because the employee is goaded towards performance. Postmodernism further holds that reality is a construct of language, and the two are only arbitrarily related to each other. Reality is not important but rather what is important is the measure that is used to indicate the condition of reality (Lynch & Cruise, 2006, p. 39). It is the view of postmodernism that the organization does not exist discretely from its environment, but is a continuation of it. (Crowther & Green, 2004, p. 133) In the call centre business, the wool was not only pulled over the customers’ eyes but also those of the prospective employee. Toynbee responded to an ad that promised a substantial salary and attractive bonuses. Upon reporting to the location in the ad, she was hired at a lower-than-minimum-wage salary, and a bonus that is given only if appointments had been secured and after they had taken place. While seemingly simple, it proved to be frustrating and tiring; the author had been able to set a single appointment, on the basis largely of a mistake on the part of the person at the receiving end, after some 163 cold calls, leaving only 9 more appointments to successfully close before she could claim a bonus. Toynbee found out that not only was the truth brazenly stretched, twisted and corrupted in all aspects of this business, but that such conduct was the requisite and accepted behaviour in the call centre business, without which the business will certainly fail. It will be recalled that postmodernism denies the existence of absolute truth. It affirms that the choice of words shaped the truth, that the truth is relative and depends upon the construction it is given by the listener. This perspective is clearly in operation in this situation of the call centre. Telemarketing is almost purely talk, without resort to the visual aids of facial expression or body language that would have provided additional contexts by which to construe reality. Thus through the telephone, people are able to create the reality that the company wishes to convey to the customer. The selection gives two striking instances of such reality-twisting words. First, Toynbee was coached by the supervisor to use the words “approximately” and “about” when quoting the scripted low price rates to the customer. The words were obviously intended for the company to technically avoid the legal liability of false advertising, which substantially they should be held accountable for. The second example is the fact that Toynbee is to quote the customer “approximately £4.50 per hour” which, at two hours for five times a week, will come to “about £65 a week.” The deception is plain; the company is taking advantage of creating confusion with its fast talk to close the sale, to the point of creating the “reality” that £4.50 ten times over is £65, and never mind the mathematics. This is postmodernism employed in a business organization. The Functionalist and Postmodern Perspectives Compared In synthesis, the functionalist and the postmodern perspectives are distinct approaches in viewing social phenomena. Functionalism views society as a group of interdependent elements similar to the body’s organs performing specific functions that contribute to the body’s maintenance. In functionalism, society is so structured and systematically organized such that each person has a role, and cohesion is achieved with the fulfilment of these roles by the individual members of society. On the other hand, post-modernism is a movement that distrusts structured theories, ideologies and conventions. It is atheistic, radical, and at times extreme, choosing to reappraise modern assumptions and redefine conventional thought. Where functionalism is structured and regulated, post-modernism is fluid and dynamic. Functionalism is historical and tends to propagate the status quo; post-modernism is contemporary and tends to challenge the status quo. Functionalism is scientific, post-modernism is intuitive. Functionalism arrives at absolute truths through proof; there is no absolute truth in post-modernism, as it creates its own truths. While their tenets diverge, their elements may be simultaneously evident within the same social milieu. In the selection presented, there are both elements of fundamentalism and postmodernity, in the manner that has been presented in this study. Conclusion Theories are the product of man’s intellect and imagination. They are attempts of men to make sense of their environment in an effort to control it. Society and organizations of necessity define how people relate to one another, and the dynamics moving them have been the subject of management theories through the years. There are no perfect theories, because there is no way by which the realm of all possibilities may be encapsulized into a neat set of defined principles. However, there is some truth to each of these theories, which when combined provide a cogent picture of the world we live in today. 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