Development and Influences of Peer Sociability - Assignment Example

Running head: developmental psychology. Developmental psychology. Development and influences of peer sociability and its impact as a social agent during middle childhood and adolescence. Abstract Peer influence on children in the middle childhood and adolescence is profound from perspectives of socialization and development of cognitive abilities due to greater exposure to extrafamilial relations including friends, peers at school, teachers, and others. This paper focuses on identifying these influences during middle childhood and adolescence, and their impact on children in positive and negative aspects. While doing so, it explores implications of behavioral trends noted in these groups, such as aggression, need for socialization, identification of self, learning and social behavior. Development and influences of peer sociability and its impact as a social agent during middle childhood and adolescence. Middle childhood, typically referred to children aged between 6 and 12, is characterized as the first developmental transition stage of growth during which their physical, behavioral, social, and emotional personalities experience significant developmental challenges. Adolescence, referred to the age between 10 and 19, approximately, is also a transitional stage of physical and mental human development that occurs between childhood and adulthood; it involves biological, social, and psychological changes (Moshman, 1999). Children’s social development is strongly characterized by peer experiences and friendships during middle childhood. These experiences tend to have a strong influence on children’s cognitive abilities and their social worlds. As children tend to go out of their homes and start mingling with others, whether at school or in the neighborhood, their exposure to world outside of family increases along with spending more time with diverse set of friends of the same age. Adolescence, in other words, replicates and incorporates previously mastered stages of development. Adolescents are characterized by rapid physical growth due to physiological changes; they too tend to expand their social horizons much wider and develop their personalities; they decrease their family involvement while increasing peer and community involvement. Physiological changes including hormonal fluctuations cause mood changes and development of some physical features. During this time, the regions of brain that control emotions develop and mature, making the phase highly sensitive to deal with and prone to external influences at large. They tend to explore different options in lifestyles, and the way in which others perceive them changes as they lose their status as children and begin to take on characteristics of adulthood ; however, their psychosocial development is not as mature as that of an adult (Moshman, 1999). As postulated by Sigmund Freud (cited in Slee, 2002), ‘during the middle childhood period-the latency period, the child’s sexual urges are relatively dormant awaiting their turbulent awakening during adolescence. During this time, the child spends time mastering a variety of tasks and acquiring different interests and devotes energy to broad task of learning. The interests of the child are extended beyond the immediate family to school and peers. The sexual dormancy of middle childhood becomes active with the physiological and physical changes during adolescence. The psychosocial development during adolescence includes five elements, as explained by Hill (1983) namely, identity, intimacy, autonomy, sexuality and achievement (Elmen & Offer, 1993). Many theorists and researchers have emphasized the fact that during the middle childhood, socialization in the peer context becomes a central issue (Hartup, 1984; McHale, Dariotis, & Kauh, 2003). It is quite evident that a substantial portion of the child’s daily activities include peer interaction and the content of this interaction consists mainly of play and socialization. Family members and peers influence children’s cognitive development. Both, forms and substance of aggression change during middle childhood; physical abuse reduces with an increase in verbal abuse, with person-directed hostile aggression being more common among the young adolescents. Feelings of competition increase as the age progresses and children tend to use strategies that coincide with the goal structures associated with obtaining valued outcomes, all as a consequence of the improving cognitive ability coupled with peer influence. Keating (1990; 89) states, ‘cognitive development is deeply embedded in the adolescent’s view of the self, of relationships to others, and of the society and the world.’ Adolescents tend to develop a need to feel secure about their sexual maturity and establish satisfactory and cooperative relationships with their peers, which is done by achieving a sense of competence and autonomy. During this time, adolescents also apply their new reflective capabilities to moral issues. They question the standards of behavior and reject traditions. However, a strong influence of traditions and culture, obtained from peer group, tend to develop adolescent’s own moral code. With lesser conformity between psychosocial and cognitive maturity, they are more prone to habits such as substance abuse, gang membership, misuse of prescription drugs, involvement in violence, high sexual fantasies, and other kinds of high risk behavior (Noller & Callan 1991). Development of cognitive ability starts shaping up during middle childhood and continues through adolescence. The child starts thinking logically with regard the observable elements in their life, including their own behaviors as well. The child starts classifying and categorizing events by developing conceptual hierarchies and conceptual integration. Adolescents’ cognitive ability is more advanced, and inclined towards experimenting and taking risks, all of which are influenced by internal forces such as the physiological and emotional changes and external forces that include peer influence, religion, community, and the behavioral patterns adopted from environment. Higher level of rationality is found during adolescents’ cognitive development (Moshman, 1999). Consequent to socialization, a paradigm shift in identification of self in middle childhood has been characteristically evidenced. Children start identifying themselves with traits such as popular, helpful, smart, and reference to athletic ability and physical attractiveness (Johnson, 1988). Increased socialization also makes children to compare themselves with others in their reference groups, usually classmates and peers, and evaluate the self with social comparisons. This results in an increase in awareness and popularity of self. As children start understanding the meaning of qualities and behaviors with respect to good or bad based upon parental dealing and teaching from school, friendships are developed based on interchange and appreciation of other’s qualities. However, identity formation becomes central during adolescence to an extent that the sociocultural and peer group influences determine the adolescents’ behavior and identity (Moshman, 1999). Gender segregation and preferences of acquaintances are the most noted behavioral trends from early to middle childhood, which progresses into adolescence. Theorists have speculated that this could be motivated by a desire for self-discovery, which could be enhanced by peers of same gender and same age because it facilitates relating to each other in a better manner (McHale et al, 2003). This again plays an important role in providing opportunities for competition and conflict. Also, it may happen due to boys’ and girls’ distinct and sometimes incompatible interaction and play styles. Gender preferences based on these factors further aggravate sex differences in social interaction styles. However, during adolescence, it takes a different turn, with sexual orientation as the prime feature. Selection of friends and forming groups to communicate and play has been noted during middle childhood. Psychologically, these social groups provide a reference point for social comparisons and self evaluations. These groups also aid in forming conceptual hierarchies. Children’s friendships in early adolescence are also characterized by greater reciprocity, commitment, and affectional bonds compared to those at younger ages. Cairns and Cairns (1994) explained that the need for friendship arises from participation in common activities and the satisfaction of instrumental needs at the start of middle childhood to the satisfaction of more abstract relational needs and goals, such as trust, honesty, and loyalty in adolescence and beyond (McHale et al., 2003). Studies suggest that socialization and peer influences have favorable and adverse effects on young children as well as adolescents. For instance, development of gender preferences causes girls who attempt to join male peer groups and who participate in cross sex behaviors to be ignored, whereas boys’ feminine activities and behaviors instigate negative feedback from both male and female peers. Also, the conceptual hierarchies formed through selection of groups or peers, interactions with opposite gender children, and sociocultural influences tend to allocate self-formed positions to both boys and girls; like for example, social dominance by boys; girls’ social status depending upon socioeconomic background, physical appearance, and family background. Children begin to believe that socialization and dominance within their groups tend to define their popularity and conceptualization of self. As indicated by Crick et al. (2001), with peer influence and socialization playing their significant roles in their development during middle childhood, children who were able to accomplish these two needs were more competent, had a variety of cognitive abilities, developed better interpersonal awareness and social comprehension, a more reflective cognitive style, more divergent thinking, and more ability to appreciate and generate humor. In adolescents, peer influence can result in acceding to the behaviors, rejecting or ignoring, or even confronting it directly with a counter influence (Brown, Bakken, Ameringer, & Mahon, 2008). These distinct influences, unlike middle childhood, can be attributed to factors such as timing, cognitive maturity and individual preferences. However, a few adverse effects of peer influence in adolescents are addiction to substance abuse and alcohol, and getting involved in high risk and/or antisocial behaviors. Concerns regarding acceptance in the peer groups are evidenced in middle childhood, related to an increase in the salience and frequency of gossip. Hartup (1992), Hymel, Wagner and Butler (1990) point that gossip at this age proves insistence on inclusion within social groups and establishes relation with respect to the core attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors comprising reinforcing the strong need of socialization (as cited in McHale et al, 2003). In adolescents, secure and strong family ties act as protective factors in guiding them through this stage of life. Secure and strong family background and culture ensure positive values and principles instilled during early childhood. Also, good social circle entails peers with positive attitude, thus minimizing the risk of antisocial behaviors. The tendency to appreciate qualities in peers makes children to model and reward aggressive behaviors in each other. Also, the need to reaffirm their position within the group may have a substantial impact on adopting antisocial behaviors. Tendency of making depression a part of behavior, more commonly seen emerging among girls of middle childhood, involves negative thoughts and feelings being shared and discussed. This behavior is said to have a pondering effect on these children and continues through adolescence. Also, same-sex grouping tendencies among children in the middle childhood often decide acceptance levels by peer group. Children who behave in gender atypical or nonnormative ways are at risk for ridicule, victimization, and rejection. (Harris, 2009). These in turn result in submissiveness, loneliness, emotional distress, and lack of self restraint leading to negative attitude, lower empathy, and depression. These children tend to become shy, timid, and have low self confidence in adolescence. In conclusion, these behavioral aspects in middle childhood and adolescence indicate development of important social competencies, cognitive skills, and emotion regulation strategies that have significant implications for their relationships with significant others in their lives. Children’s experiences with their friends and in their peer social networks have implications for their current and future social competence and adjustment. These influences can be seen in the shaping of changing relationships within peers, parents, and others, on their social development, sibling relationships and their influences; and on the other hand, peer influence and socialization can also cause much harm in the form of development of hostile relationships and attitudes in young children and antisocial risk behaviors in adolescents. References Brown, B.B, Bakken, J.P, Ameringer, S.W. and Mahon, S.D. (2008). A comprehensive conceptualization of the peer influence process in adolescence. In Prinstein, M.J. and Dodge, K.A. (Eds) Understanding peer influence in children and adolescents (pp 17-44). Published by Guilford Press: New York. Retrieved from http://books.google.co.in/books?id=n2Cr7GC0QX4C&pg=PP1&dq=understanding+peer+influence+in+children+and+adolescents#v=onepage&q=aceding&f=false Crick et al. (2001). Relational victimization in childhood and adolescence. In Juvonen, J and Graham, S. Peer harassment in school: the plight of the vulnerable and victimized (pp. 196-241). Published by Guilford Press: New York. Retrieved from http://books.google.co.in/books?id=qFqKTO46KOIC&pg=PA200&dq=social+exclusion+middle+childhood#v=onepage&q=social%20exclusion%20middle%20childhood&f=false Elmen, J and Offer, D. (1993). Normality, turmoil, and adolescence. In Tolan, P.H and Cohler, B.J (Eds) Handbook of Clinical Research and Practice with Adolescents (pp. 5-20). Published by John Wiley and Sons: United States of America. Retrieved from, http://books.google.co.in/books?id=N6p0OFMOipoC&pg=PA107&dq=Effects+of+Culture+on+Adolescent%27s+Sexual+Behaviour#PPA5,M1 Harris, M.J. (2009). Bullying, rejection, and peer victimization: A social cognitive neuroscience perspective. Published by Springer Publishing Company: New York. 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