Social Welfare Practitioners - Essay Example

Social Welfare Practitioners Abstract Success has been elusive for youth correctional agencies charged with supervising offending youth. Youth Juvenile Agencies has recognized that overrepresentation cannot be purely explained by offending rates since police practices, jurisdictional differences, racial/ethnic based prejudices, and punitive juvenile crime legislation play a central role in generating the race disparities. There is a need to encourage the creation of an oversight body comprising of stakeholders to highlight where disparities manifest, eliminate unnecessary juvenile justice system involvement, and appraise refers to remedy disproportionate minority representation. Intervention plans to counter young offending ought to be tailored to align with juvenile needs, risks, which mean that a one-size-fit all approach to intervention are unlikely to be effective. Some of the interventions employed by various agencies in addressing young offending include aggression replacement training, drug treatment, cognitive behavioural therapy, functional family therapies, and multi-systemic therapy. Introduction Australia has witnessed a shift in the systems that deal with consequences of youth crime by responding to the underlying causes of offending by children and young people. Efforts are largely directed towards early prevention and intervention, diversion, inclusive of restorative justice practices, whereby detention is only utilized for serious and persistent offending behaviour. For young offenders who come into contact with the juvenile justice system, the focus is largely on rehabilitation and reconnection with the community and family. In Queensland, young offenders who have to go through the juvenile justice system are expected to complete court based orders under the guidance of professionals from Youth Justice Services. Caseworkers have a role in working with the subjects to aid them desist from crime and effectively reintegrate back to the community. However, caseworkers often encounter difficulties when engaging the youth since most of the clients have limited motivation and negative perceptions regarding the juvenile justice system. Although, Juvenile Justice cannot have an influence on the degree of over-representation alone, it is essential to avail programs and services to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander juvenile offenders that minimize their re-offending and heighten their capacity to effectively re-integrate in the community (Graycar & Grabosky, 2002). The objective of youth justice rests on availing a just and balanced response, in line with the assertion that young people should be accountable for their actions, foster community safety, and aid reintegration back into the society. The guiding principles that inform young offender intervention include recognition of community safety, focus on rehabilitation, support for victims, utilization of evidence-based interventions, and cost-effectiveness. It is essential to separate treatment from punishment, respond promptly to risk instead of crime, and offer one-on-one case management to support juvenile offenders and those predisposed to offending. The challenge at hand, which Juvenile System must confront, rests on changing the manner in which the agency work and to appreciate that the core responsibility of the agency rests on enhancing responsiveness to the expectations and needs of the indigenous young people (Cunneen, 2006). An Overview on the Social Issue It is objectionable that one section of the society continues to experience significant disadvantage. Justice interventions should be framed using the concepts of positive youth development. There are good reasons on the need to aid the youth to access and establish pro-social strengths and attributes so as to enhance their capabilities to contribute to safe, healthy, family and community life. It is essential to improve the Australian justice systems to ensure that they comprehensively deliver on the justice requirements of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people in a fair and equitable way (Barclay, 2007). However, the diversionary programs have been largely unsuccessful since they have failed significantly to minimize over-representation of indigenous young people. The factors connected to offending behaviour are intricate, interdependent and interactive and relate to the social disadvantage experienced by indigenous people. A “whole of community” intervention model may be required so as to minimize crime. Effective re-integration of Aboriginal clients into their communities can be difficult, especially if communities are unaware of the rationale of the interventions and diversionary approaches. The programs should encompass Multi-Systemic therapy, day-care and pre-school programs, and parenting training programs. The programs ought to be culturally appropriate mirroring the values and aspirations of the community where the young people reside. The Failure of Agencies in Addressing Indigenous Overrepresentation One of the core reasons for the institutional failure in addressing the problem of over-representation of indigenous young people lies in the maintenance of a holistic perspective and effectively coordinating design and delivery of programs responding to the wider social and economic issues. Shannon and Young book avails frameworks to aid social change workers appreciate problems and employ their understandings to the practice in ways that can be effective at diverse levels (Shannon & Young, 2004). Research has demonstrated that levels of substance abuse and offending is a central area of interest and has availed the impetus for a diversionary programs and initiatives directed at minimizing offending by addressing drug use and alcohol abuse. High degree of substance abuse is reported among indigenous offenders. In most cases, drug use tends to start at early ages among indigenous young people and indigenous offenders are highly likely to report being under influence of alcohol at the period of arrest or offence. Similarly, indigenous young people are highly likely to receive a supervised order relative to non-indigenous youth, which implies that their offending is usually more serious relative to non-indigenous youth. The rate of recidivism has been proved to be higher among indigenous young people relative to non-indigenous offenders (Sheehan, & Borowski, 2013). The interventions should be made more accessible, focused, and comprehensive, and which appreciates the connections between the multiple factors that yield to over-representation of indigenous young people in the criminal justice system. The purpose of the interventions should rest in minimizing the number of indigenous young people who are under supervision of the Juvenile Justice Department, especially the number of indigenous young people in custody. There is a wide array of efforts carried out by government agencies such as Department of Juvenile Justice to tackle the problem of over-representation; nevertheless, there is a great deal of dissatisfaction of the Department of Juvenile Justice in availing effective leadership (Cunneen, 2006). Among the failings in the agency response to crime and justice include lack of coordination and collaboration between the agencies and community organizations. Explanatory Theories Young offenders with an over-representation of youth coming from minority ethnic communities usually tend to share certain characteristics including low income, low educational achievement, and strained familial relations. The predisposition for some young people to involve in criminal activity is reflected in, and the result of, the prevalent social and divisions inequalities characteristics of broader economic and social structural forms. Individual family dysfunction is a key contributing factor to the high levels of juvenile offending. From a theoretical perspective, several criminological theories are employed to elaborate on indigenous offending. Conflict theories stipulate that the society comprises of competing social groups who do not enjoy access to equal life changes and social rewards, which yields to oppression suffered by minority groups. The perceived inequality and disadvantage fosters hostility and anger among the minority groups towards society. Strain theories stipulate that criminal behaviour represents one of the limited ways to open to the disadvantaged indigenous people to gain the material benefits that are valued by non-indigenous society, since the legitimate ways of deriving the material benefits are closed for the indigenous people. The diversion may minimize the risk of adverse “labelling” often linked to formal youth justice interventions. Labelling can yield to approval by young people and their families that they are “delinquent” or “criminal.” As a result, the young people may attempt to live up to the label. Labelling theory stipulates that processing young people within court system yields to stigmatization since they are labelled as deviant (Bernburg, Krohn, & Rivera, 2006). The negative labelling makes young people gravitate towards deviance, which avails further criminal socialization and heightens the risk of re-offending, which is largely linked to the notions of self-fulfilling prophesy and stereotyping. For instance, labelling among young people as a “criminal” can aid in creating deviant self-image, which can trigger the traits of criminal behaviour. The youth justice system aids participants to avert labels, in which the victim is seen as someone affected by the young person’s actions, which reduces the risk of labelling influencing negatively on participant’s engagement with the process. Theories informing Intervention for Indigenous Overrepresentation Some of the strategies instituted to counter the problem of disproportionate contact include addressing social disadvantage such as overcrowding, recognizing and elevating family, community, and cultural strengths that serve to safeguard children, establish community-wide strategies to respond to risk factors such as family violence, and drug abuse, utilizing holistic approaches that are culturally sensitive and that empower families and communities. The intervention methods are drawn from sociological and psychological theories, as well as social work assessments. Some of the methods employed to address the problem of overrepresentation include family therapy or social networking and behaviour modification. Multi-systemic therapy represents an intensive family-and community-based intervention structured to render positive changes within the diverse social system (peer relations, school, home, and community) that contribute towards addressing the serious anti-social behaviour of children and youth. The intervention employs evidence-based, solution-focused approaches such as cognitive behavioural therapy and family therapy. Psychosocial Theory Social work theorists highlight the significance of contextualizing the human person within his or her social environment, in which the individual is viewed as interdependent and interrelated with the environment. As such, individual’s development and social satiation are partly a product of the environment, but an individual can influence and alter his or her environment. Social identity theory details processes of categorization, construction of stereotyping and labelling, especially given that individuals are awarded social attributions and labels based on group status (Phenice, & Griffore, 2000). Ethnic minority youth and families are frequently burdened with adverse social identities, which are further exacerbated by approaches to intervention and research grounded in erroneous labelling, categorizations, and descriptions. For young ethnic minority groups, the labels place them at a social disadvantage and can negatively influence their self concepts. Attachment theory, as a guiding theory in the intervention, aids social workers to understand and make sense of clients’ behaviour and their capability to establish relationships within environmental and interpersonal systems. The core premise of attachment theory outlines that, past experiences with interactions and relationships influence emotional, social, and psychological development and functioning, which further influence new interactions and relationships. According to attachment theory, the capability or incapability of a child to attach to a caretaker, the degree of consistency of the parent to satisfy emotional needs of a child, and the capability or incapability of the child to feel safe predict how the child develop socially and emotionally or react to other people. The motivation for offending is connected to a sense of self and attachment to the community. The more connected and integrated the young person is to the community, the less probable they are to offend. The need for family support services derive from the fact that, most cases reveal numerous risk factors including parental mental health problems, parental drug and alcohol problems, domestic and family violence, and family homelessness. Family therapists employ ecological systems perspective and broaden their relationship emphasis to include other cultural issues and societal systems that influence individuals and families. Postmodern perspectives on family therapy highlight the constructed nature of reality and the need to form collaborative relationships between the therapist and the client. When working with the clients, family therapists utilize practice methods that centre on altering behavioural patterns, social context, and cognitive-beliefs, while at the same time emphasizing the significance of working with emotional states and attachment processes. Family violence is a prominent issue confronting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The high level of violence linked to dysfunctional families has been linked to the problem of overrepresentation of ethnic minority youth placed under supervision. Some of the innovative approaches adopted to minimize family violence include promoting and supporting community-based organizations in ways to minimize and prevent family violence, supporting community projects with holistic approaches that respond to emotional, social, and cultural wellbeing of the entire community (Cunneen, 2006). The government’s initiatives include Family Law Violence strategy that seeks to guarantee that allegations of child abuse and family violence emanating from family proceedings are dealt with speedily, justly, and properly. Mid-range Explanatory Theories Child developmental theories include social learning theory, ecological theory, cognitive-developmental theory, behaviourist theory, and socio-cultural theory. Each of the outlined theories explores and explains child development from a slightly different perspective. Social learning theories stipulate that children mainly learn new behaviours through observation. The possibility that individuals will engage in criminal and deviant behaviour is heightened and the possibility of their conforming to the norm is minimized when they differentially associate with those that commit criminal behaviour. The conceptualization of social learning draws from different premises including differential reinforcement, differential association, and imitation. Differential association stipulates that the deviance is produced through direct association and interaction with individuals who engage in certain forms of behaviour. Social learning theory connected values and attitudes to the influence of broad and specific definitions including broad beliefs regarding conforming behaviour impacted principally via conventional norms. Social learning theory contends that external reinforcement is not the sole way through which children learn new things, but rather intrinsic reinforcements such as sense of accomplishment, satisfaction, and pride can yield to learning (Nelken, 2009). The dysfunctional family set up and environment plays a big role in juveniles learning criminal acts. Largely, the present juvenile intervention programs appear to downplay the significance of external motivation in the surge of juvenile offending. The absence of sufficient role models in indigenous communities, coupled with the lack of access to resources and opportunities contribute to negative involvement of indigenous youth within the juvenile justice system. Family disorganization/family detachment and delinquent peers have a huge bearing on juvenile deviant behaviours. The presence of anti-social criminal norms within families can lead to criminal dysfunctional and deviant behaviours, which explains why children from discordant marital environments manifest a disproportionately high degree of delinquent behaviour. Community Development Theories Community development theory represents the most frameworks for social employees pursuing lasting change for individuals, families, and communities. There are several community development theories that respond to the dynamics and changes within community experiences over time. Some of the community development theories include group behaviour, group development, and marginality and mattering. Community development theories mainly treat communities as systems conceived as entities that can be treated from round the environment. Social disorganization is a consequence of the community incapability to realize shared values and solve the problems of the society members. This yields to the breakdown of effective social control in the community, which undermines the capability to act communally. As a result, individuals manifest unrestricted freedom to express their desires and disposition, often yielding to delinquent behaviour. The theory of marginality outlines that the failure or success of a person's transition is linked to the level to which the individual feel he or she matter in a new environment. Mattering relates to the feeling of belonging and significance to others, while marginality relates to the feeling that one does not fit in a certain community. In a significant, indigenous youth feel disenfranchised in their communities, which explains the high involvement in deviant and criminal behaviour. Some of the causes include trauma emanating from previous government policies such as mass relocations, intergenerational impacts of removals on parenting, high levels of social disadvantages experienced by ethnic minorities, exceeding high levels of alcohol and drug abuse, and poor services and supports offered to discrete communities. Studies have demonstrated that persistent offending tends to be found among individuals who start wrongdoing early in life. Models/strategies to tackle the disproportionate representation of indigenous juvenile offenders Community organizing represents the process of building a mobilizable community or an enduring network of individuals, who share common ideals and engage within social action on the grounds of those ideals. Community organizing details the process of organizing relationships and issues, mobilizing around those issues, and sustaining a lasting organization. Community organizers working at grassroots level have a prominent role to address disproportionate contact of young offenders of multiple-deprivation. The questions asked by community organizers are designed to trigger critical consciousness by connecting offender’s emotions to the local community and broader society. Community organizing underpins program provision for young people, root for enhanced collaboration with community agencies, and improve community confidence within the delivery of Youth Justice Services. The community organizers ought to avail youth-specific interventions, which builds upon cultural strengths and establish meaningful strategies to address the distinct issues underlying youth offending (Shannon & Young, 2004). The community ought to be empowered to become active stakeholders within the youth justice system. Crisis Intervention Crisis intervention can be cited as one of the means of tackling the intricate and deep-rooted problem of overrepresentation of young indigenous Australians in the juvenile justice system. The interlinked issues of absence of social support, poverty, and high dropout rates are to blame for the depressing overrepresentation of young indigenous offenders. Crisis intervention is necessary since, if successful, young offenders are less probable to become chronically delinquent. The crisis intervention model represents a dynamic collaboration of community organizations and juvenile justice agencies committed to guaranteeing that young offenders access appropriate services and supports. Crisis intervention models for youth employ community policing model that aids safeguard criminal activity by connecting youth with community supports and counselling services, which ultimately aids to minimize future contact with juvenile justice system, and the law enforcement. Crisis intervention programs also enhance coordination between the various agencies. The crisis intervention programs for youth are not structured to diagnose or “label” young indigenous offenders. The youth justice system ought to be non-marginalizing, therapeutic, specialist, and culturally relevant. Anti-oppressive Practice Previously, some agencies had a paternalistic relationship with indigenous peoples, which have proved toxic in tackling juvenile offending. The historical trauma occasioned by forced relocations yielded to family disintegration, breakdown of the social structure, and ultimately, the social fibre. In order to tackle the problem of overrepresentation, there it is essential that agencies involved in youth justice system cease to use oppressive practice. The juvenile justice policy should abandon the premise that the government is the sole decider of what is best for indigenous people. Based on past legacy, there seems to be an apprehension of the community’s confusion and reactions regarding what action (or inaction)is in the best interest of indigenous children and youth. Theories of Practice that Juvenile Justice Agency draw upon to Instigate Change Behaviour Modification Cognitive behavioural therapy teaches young offenders that it is possible to control their feelings, thoughts, and behaviours. Behaviour modification/behavioural therapy focus on instituting contingencies of positive reinforcement to establish and sustain suitable patterns of behaviour. The cognitive behavioural therapy aids the youth to challenge and overcome their automatic beliefs by exploiting practical strategies to adjust their behaviour, with the outcome of enhancing positive feelings yielding to enhanced positive thoughts and conduct (Pearson, Lipton, Cleland, & Yee, 2000). Cognitive therapy seeks to alter the manner in which the individual thinks regarding the issue causing concern. Problematic and distorted perceptions yield to self-destructive behaviours and feelings. Cognitive therapy confronts these problematic thoughts via diverse techniques such as cognitive restructuring. Behavioural therapy seeks to teach techniques and skills to adjust unhelpful behaviour (Graziano, 2009). Negative thoughts and feelings steadily decline as the individual increasingly utilizes the practise behaviour and gain confidence. A core feature of CBT details the suggestion that symptoms and dysfunctional habits, behaviours, and beliefs that are cognitively mediated. The therapy pursues to extinguish or inhibit maladaptive or abnormal behaviour by reinforcing desired behaviour and extinguishing undesired behaviour. Cognitive Reframing Counselling represents the process of aiding individuals with psychological problems, which aids individuals to learn how to solve certain emotional, interpersonal, and decision problems. The core aim of counselling centres on altering behaviour and changing behaviour through behaviour modification techniques. Cognitive reframing represents psychological technique that comprises of highlighting and disputing maladaptive or irrational thoughts. The reframing is undertaken in an effort to find positive alternatives. Cognitive reframing can be useful in addressing the problem of overrepresentation of young indigenous offenders, especially in altering maladaptive thoughts on the impossibility of change. Cognitive reframing pays attention to cognitive and emotional processes, which function between the stimuli received and the overt behaviours enacted. The core concept of cognitive psychology details that an individual’s view of the world shapes reality; hence, the spotlight is on internal thought processes. Cognitive reframing teaches clients to monitor their own thinking and establish alternative thinking, which helps clients avert deviance. Client Person-centred Approach The overriding theme is that of services should be highly structured and wrapping around a family to deliver meaningful results for families, individuals, communities, and governments. In this approach, individuals are empowered and supported to direct their lives by exercising choice and control over the services and supports they utilize. The client does not have to fit in with the service offering, but rather the individual shapes the supports and services they utilize to align with their needs, lifestyle, and circumstances (McMillan, 2004). In order to attain the social justice principles, the person-centred approach ought to be responsive and integrated to avail a holistic response to an individual’s needs. The overarching framework for the provision of support demands enhanced access, early intervention, increased social participation, lifelong planning, enhanced access to indigenous people, and enhanced workforce capacity. The advent of person centred approach offers an opportunity for Aboriginal youth to engage in a substantive way with the youth justice system. Presently, majority of Aboriginal youth remain at the periphery of the youth justice service system. Conclusion The juvenile justice system draws from the principle that children and young people who contravene the law can and ought to be rehabilitated, in which the overriding principle details that detention should be carried out as a measure of last resort, and for the shortest time possible. The most effective programs are those that safeguard youth from engaging in delinquent behaviours in the first place. The juvenile justice system has instituted an array of evidence-based, targeted juvenile crime and deviant behaviour prevention models, which are grounded in early identification of at-risk populations, effective engagement, and assessment-based interventions. The evidence-based, targeted interventions avail a means of minimizing anti-social behaviour and reoffending while at the same time improving the quality of life within deprived communities. Home-visiting programs targeting at-risk infants can play a big role in preventing drug use, anti-social behaviour, delinquency, and early school drop-out. Community-based programs can also aid divert first-time offenders from contact with the justice system. The most effective community programs recognize family interactions and avail skills to agencies that supervise and train the youth. References Barclay, E. (2007). Crime in rural Australia. Annandale, N.S.W: Federation Press. Bernburg, J. G., Krohn, M & Rivera, C. J. (2006). Official Labeling, Criminal Embeddedness, and Subsequent delinquency: A Longitudinal Test of Labeling Theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 43(1), 67-88. Cunneen, C. (2006). Racism, discrimination and the over-representation of Indigenous people in the criminal justice system: Some conceptual and explanatory issues. Current Issues in Criminal Justice 17(3): 329–346 Graycar, A., & Grabosky, P. N. (2002). The Cambridge handbook of Australian criminology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Graziano, A. M. (2009). Behavior therapy with children: Volume 2. New Brunswick, N.J: Aldine Transaction. McMillan, M. (2004). The person-centred approach to therapeutic change. London: SAGE Publications. Nelken, D. (2009). Comparative criminal justice: Beyond ethno-centricism and relativism. European Journal of Criminology, 6(4), 291-311. Pearson, F. S., Lipton, D. S., Cleland, C. M., & Yee, D. S. (2000). The effects of behavioural/cognitive-behavioural programs on recidivism. Crime & Delinquency, 48(3), 476-496. Phenice, L. A. & Griffore, R. J. (2000). Social identity of ethnic minority families: An ecological approach for the new millennium. Michigan Family Review, 5(1), 29-39. Shannon, P., & Young, S. (2004). Solving Social Problems: Southern Perspectives. Palmerston North: Dunmore Press. Sheehan, R., & Borowski, A. (2013). Australia's children's courts today and tomorrow. Dordrecht: Springer. Social Work Knowledge, Theories and Values Summary Sheet Name: Social policy domains: The paper explores the social policy area of Crime and Justice. The paper examines the Australian criminal justice system, especially in the area of Youth Justice Service. Social issue/problem: The social issue under spotlight is the disproportionate contact of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth with youth justice system. Agency Name (or programme): The paper explores the efforts carried out by government agencies such as Department of Juvenile Justice to tackle the problem of indigenous youth over-representation in the juvenile justice system. Service User participation: The paper laments the poor service user participation, especially about the provision of sufficient, culturally sensitive treatment programs. What’s the problem? (According to the agency): The paper notes that, there has been failure of the mainstream services in catering, in any effective or real, to the requirements of the Aboriginal youth. Theory informing Intervention: The theories informing intervention encompass sociological and psychological theories including attachment theory and social identity theory. Two mid-range theories: The mid-range theories utilized in the study include child development theories (such as social learning theories) and community development theories. Practice Models: The practice models employed to tackle the disproportionate contact of indigenous juvenile youth with the juvenile justice system include community organizing, anti-oppressive practice, and crisis intervention. Theories for Practice: The theories of practice that the juvenile justice agencies draw upon in an effort to instigate change encompass behavioural modification, client person-centred approach, and cognitive reframing. Social Work Knowledge, Theories and Values Summary sheet The Australian criminal justice system comprises of the Commonwealth and State/Territory institutions, departments, agencies, and personnel charged with responding to the justice aspects of crime, individuals accused or convicted of perpetrating a crime, victims of crime, and connected issues and processes. The juvenile justice system seeks to rehabilitate rather than punishing juvenile offenders. One core aspects of the juvenile justice system details the supervision of children and young people who have engaged in crime. State and Territories within Australia have come to embrace systems of juvenile justice typified by the justice system as opposed to previous approaches grounded in welfare model. The Youth Justice Service is accountable for managing community-based and custodial sentencing order that are usually imposed by the children’s court. The youth justice system represents formal services and institutions for both children and young people who have involved in crime and who come into contact with the criminal justice system. Research has demonstrated that it is only a small section of young people that commit a crime on an ongoing basis. The bulk of young people who are delinquent usually stop without any form of intervention and devoid of entering the criminal justice system; nevertheless, a small percentage of young offenders who do not cease offending and who are responsible for the disproportionate amount of crime. The risk factors linked to young offending include antisocial peers, substance abuse, antisocial attitudes, problematic home environment, antisocial personality patterns, and problematic leisure and recreational activities. The government has in the past instituted measures such as diversionary initiatives in an effort to reduce recidivism, minimized illicit drug or alcohol abuse, enhanced health and social functioning, reintegration of offenders into the community, and community engagement within crime prevention. However, the measures have been inconclusive when it comes to addressing the disproportionate contact of indigenous young people on the criminal justice system. The over-representation of indigenous young people draws from the long history of disadvantage and inequality suffered by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The inequalities manifest in the areas of housing, health, education, income, and employment are closely connected to the skewed number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in detention. On average, indigenous young people aged between 10-17 years are close to 14 times highly likely to be subjected to community-based supervision relative to non-indigenous young people of the same age. The degree of over-representation is even greater for detention. Although, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders constituting only 5% of young Australians, close to 50% of those within detention are indigenous young people. Research has shown that close to 30% of those placed under supervision come from areas of lowest socio-economic status within Australia. Over-representation of indigenous peoples continues to increase, whereby between 2000 and 2008, the rate of imprisonment rose by 46% for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women while that of men increased by 27%. The causes of disproportionate contact of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth are intricate, constituting numerous, family, community, historical, and individual factors. The paper outlined two reasons for the over-presentation for the non-Aboriginal youth in the system; first, the paper asserts that the justice system has discriminated against Aboriginal youth; and, secondly, treatment and diversionary programs have fallen short to identify and adapt to the distinct needs of Aboriginal young offenders. Research has shown that Aboriginal youths have less social support including strong nuclear family or employment. The justice systems have failed to provide sufficient, culturally sensitive treatment programs. Name: Read More