The Disproportionality of School Discipline in U.S. Public Schools as It Relates to Race - Essay Example

Magnitude of the Problem of color are often ed to racial stereotyping when it comes to school discipline. African American are suspended and expelled at disproportionate rates to their white counterparts, and in many cases are punished harsher for lesser offenses (Skiba, Michael, Nardo, 2000). Racial disproportional school disciplinary practices have been studied over the past 30 years. The Childrens Defense Fund records one of the first studies to address the problem. According to (Skiba et. al., 2000) the Childrens Defense Fund in 1975 found that suspension rates for African-American students were between two and three times higher than those for Caucasian students. A literature review of the recent research revealed that a similar pattern still remains almost 30 years later (Skiba et al., 2000). There are 17 million students of color and their communities that are impacted by disproportional school disciplinary practices (Gordan, Peana and Keleher 2000). The Etiology and Treatment Racial disproportional discipline became significantly more noticeable after schools became desegregated, especially in high socioeconomic schools (SES) (Thornton and Trent 1988). The integration of students was not supported by racial tolerance, becoming more evident in the disciplinary practices since then. Larkin (1979) suggested that the increase in school suspensions was a direct result of conflict between cultural differences in teacher-students and student-student relations. Although research has not determined the cause of the problem, some support the idea that cultural competence is the key to a resolution in addition to employing diverse teachers (Mcfadden, Marsh II, Price, & Hwang 1992). Others have suggested that requiring less harsh methods for certain behaviors to be the standard for discipline such as crisis intervention and conflict resolution (Skiba, Peterson, & Williams, 1997). The cause of disproportion in school discipline has been explained by sociologist using the labeling perspective, conflict theory and symbolic interactionism theory (Bowditch, 1993, Constanbader and Markson, 1998, Skiba, Michael, Nardo, & Peterson, 2002, McFadden et. al,. 1992, Skiba et. al., 1997). These theories will be explored further in this paper. The Affect of Disproportional Suspensions and Expulsions Racial disproportion and school suspension is important to study because of the consequences that jeopardizes the future of millions of young people of color in the United States. The disproportion school discipline leads to individuals of color receiving an inferior education to their white counterparts in a number of ways. First, it was discovered that individuals who were suspended or expelled have a higher dropout rate (Bowditch, 1993). A high school education is almost necessary for one to have a higher paying job. The repercussions of dropping out of school widen the gap between those with power and privileges with those who do not. Secondly, the report from the National Summit on Zero Tolerance (June 2000) revealed that once children are suspended or expelled their opportunities for success in later life are also “suspended”. The report revealed that children who had been suspended or expelled do not have the same opportunities to apply for scholarships, college admission and job opportunities. Their disciplinary history severely impacts their ability to achieve. Lastly, children who have been suspended or expelled become labeled as delinquent notes Bowditch (1993). The devastating impact of labeling an individual as delinquent severely impacts the individual’s ability to overcome this stereo type. Robbins, Susan, Chaterjee, Canda (2006) states that once an individual is classified as a delinquent the individual tends to believe this label and acts accordingly. Their delinquent behavior further locks them out of opportunities for jobs or other educational advancements. Society pays a heavy price when it refuses to address the disproportional school disciplinary practices. Skiba, Peterson, Williams (1997) report that students who are suspended or expelled face higher dropout rates. The price is paid by society as a whole with increased social service programs that must be provided to individuals who are not capable of supporting themselves or their families because they lack the educational criteria that are needed for higher-paying jobs. According to Constenbader and Markson (1998) students who have been suspended or expelled are at high risk for being involved in the juvenile system therefore further payment by society is seen with increased taxation to support our criminal justice system. The uneducated individuals who resort to crime as a way of survival heavily impact the cost of our criminal justice system also. The Intervention of Professionals It is important for social workers to study this problem because if the root of the social problem is not realized we will continue to treat the social conditions instead of curing the social ills. If we recognize racism as the cause then we can incorporate policies and procedures to eliminate these social ills. According to the social worker’s preamble located in the code of ethics the goal of a social worker is to empower people who are vulnerable, oppressed and living in poverty. In order to empower the vulnerable and oppressed, the social worker must understand how and why one is being oppressed and how they became vulnerable. By studying the disproportional school disciplinary practices the social worker is not only able to understand the ramifications of such actions but they are then able to seek change to ensure equity, opportunity and excellence for all students. Explanation of the Problem Using Symbolic Interactions The disproportional school discipline can be explained by using the Symbolic Interaction Theory. This theory according to Robbin, Chatterjee, & Canda (2006) purposes the idea that humans do not simply respond to symbols but that they interpret them. The disproportional school discipline can be explained by the assumption that teachers or administrators do a poor job at interpreting behavior that is outside of their cultural norms. Their interpretations of the perceived behavior may lead to increased office referrals and disciplinary actions of groups that do not represent their culture or ethnic beliefs. Their interpretation of behavior may be misconstrued as a sign of disrespect. Skiba’s et al., (1997) study revealed that the most common reasons for office referrals were for lack of cooperation and insubordination/ verbal abuses, followed by tardiness/absences. Bowditch (1993) gave a prime example of how the behavior of an African-American urban high school student was misconstrued as lack of cooperation with school rules. The high school student was late to school on many instances and was given several warnings. He explained to the school administrators that he had household obligations of caring for a younger sibling and could not make it to school on time. School officials told him that he had to prioritize his life and that his education should come first. The school officials interpreted his behavior as being noncompliant and unwilling to conform to the school rules. They further noted that his disrespect for school official warranted suspension. He was suspended and eventually expelled for repeated infractions of tardiness and absences. The schools lack of understanding for the society in which they worked did not allow them to find ways to include an individual. Charles Horton Cooley as reported in Robbins et al., (2006) hypothesized that any understanding of society must be based on an understanding of the individuals in that society. Another key concept of interaction theory according to Robbins et al., (2006) is that human interaction is a continuous interpretive process therefore human life is dynamic and creative. Our interpretation constructs our social realities. Bowditch (1993) observed that when children were referred to the office for misbehavior, the disciplinarian would rarely address the rule infraction that initiated the referral rather the disciplinarian would ask the students questions regarding, past referrals, grades and attendance. Those who had below average grades, repeated offensives and low grades was socially constructed as troublemakers therefore received harsher penalties for the same infraction as oppose to those who scored above grade average, had less offenses and had regular attendance. Their misbehavior was construed as the child was bored and blame was placed on the teacher or school setting for not giving the child challenging work to keep him or her busy. This interpretation of behavior is congruent with James William’s idea that our interpretation constructs our social realities (Lemert, 2004). The third and final key concept reported by Robbins et al., (2006) is that a person develops self-conceptions of his or herself through the process of interaction. Furthermore, individuals are shaped in part by the views and attitudes that others hold about them. Costenbader et. al., (1998) felt this was explained by this theory. Their study revealed that students who had been suspended were more likely to be labeled as deviant. They were also more likely to be involved in the legal system. According to the Symbolic Interaction Theory students who are labeled deviant are more likely to engage in deviant behaviors. Lemert (2004) suggests that a conflict theory would support the idea that those in power define deviant behavior and interpret those behaviors. School officials have the power in a school setting to define deviant behavior and they also hold interpretation power. In other words, school officials determine whose behavior fit those formal definitions of deviance. Bowditch (1993) says that deviance is defined through the process of conflict and negotiation with other interested players. School official’s interpretations of those behaviors may be biased. Those in power tend to interpret the definition of deviance in a way that would benefit teachers and administrators and the institution as a whole. In other words, it may be more beneficial and less time consuming on the part of the teacher or disciplinarian to suspend a student rather then to council a student and to teach children conflict resolution techniques. Critical Assessment of the Application of Social Interactions The Symbolic Interaction Theory certainly provides a viable explanation for disproportionate distribution of school discipline on African American children. If an understanding can be reached as to the reason why school discipline is distributed at a disproportionate rate by a social interaction theory, then one may be able to resolve the problem. Symbolic Interaction Theory argues that the greater interaction within groups will reduce racism or increase an understanding between the groups at least. The Symbolic Interaction Theory argues that the problem may be resolved if we increase social interaction between the teacher and student. This can only be done when teachers or administrators get an understanding of the individual within their society. In order for teachers to get an understanding of their students’ behaviors one might suggest home visits could be made by teachers and administrators. Increasing the number of diverse teachers might be another plausible solution. Johnson, Boyden & Pittz (2001) noted that forty-two percent of all public schools in the U.S. have no teachers of color. While students of color make up thirty-three percent of all public school enrollments, teachers of color make up just thirteen percent of all teachers. This may mean that funding for graduating more teachers of color may be needed to fulfill this criterion. Another possible solution that the Symbolic Interaction Theory would support would be to incorporate cultural competency testing for all teachers. Limitations Using the Symbolic Interaction Theory to explain the disproportional school discipline has certain limitations. The first limitation is that the Symbolic Interaction Theory ignores motives, emotions and the unconscious. It could be argued that some Caucasian teachers are motivated to keep African-American students out of school by any means necessary because some may be threatened by African-Americans who hold power. Some might be scared of a new privileged group consisting of African-Americans. Another identified limitation is that the Social Interaction Theory ignores larger social structures (Robbins et. al., 2006). To say that a man is the captain of his own ship ignores the role of the environment that the ship must navigate. Likewise, in the case of disproportional school discipline, it may mean that federal, state and local governments are set up in a way to promote such disproportion. Conclusion Racial disparities in school disciplinary procedures suggest that there are biases that exist. School officials that rely on suspensions and expulsions as a means to enforce discipline may need to routinely monitor and evaluate the extent of disproportion in those punished. Furthermore, the analysis between the Social Interaction Theory and the disproportion of school discipline should give lawmakers something to go by when formulating laws to address this problem. It would not be unreasonable for lawmakers to give consideration in requiring all schools to keep and publish statistics about the disbursement of school discipline. When there is concrete data, it is much harder to dispute and ignore this problem. Lastly, schools that show a disproportionate rate of disciplinary measures should be mandated to come up with a plan to distribute discipline more evenly. Cultural competency classes should be mandated for all school officials and teachers. Education in college institutions and graduate schools should pay closer attention to this issue and recognize these issues in training new teachers. References Bowditch, C. (1993). Getting rid of the troublemakers: High school disciplinary procedures and the production of dropouts. Social Problems, 40, 493-507. Costenbader, V., & Markson, S. (1998). School suspension: A study with secondary school students. Journal of School Psychology, 36, 59-82. Gordan, R., Della Piana, L., & Keleher, T. (2000). Facing the consequences: An examination of racial discrimination in U.S. Public Schools. Oakland, CA: Applied Research Center Johnson, T., Jennifer Emiko Boyden, William R. Pittz (2001). Racial Profiling and Punishment in U.S. Public Schools. How Zero Tolerance Policies and High Stake Testing Subvert Academic Excellence and Racial Equity, Applied Research Center 1-66. Lemert, Charles, Editor (2004). Social Theory. The multicultural and classic readings, 2nd edition. Boulder: Westview Press. McFadden, A.C., Marsh, G.E., Price, B.J., & Hwang, Y. (1992). A study of race and gender bias in the punishment of handicap children. Urban Review, 24, 239-251. Robbins, Susan P., Pranab Chatterjee, Edward R. Canda (2006). Contemporary Human behavior theory. A critical perspective for social work. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Skiba, R. J., Michael, R. S., Nardo, A.C., & Peterson, R.L. (2002). The color of discipline: Sources of racial and gender disproportional in school punishment. 1-20. Urban review, 34, 317 - 342 Skiba, R.J., Peterson R.L., Williams, T. (1997). Office referrals and suspension: Disciplinary intervention in Middle Schools. Education and Treatment of Children, 20, 295-315 Thornton, C. H. and Trent, W. (1988). School desegregation and suspension in East Baton Rouge Parish: A preliminary report. Journal of Negro Education 57: 482-501. Read More