Impact of Domestic Violence against Children - Essay Example

Impact of Domestic Violence against Children Children are sometimes called to be the 'forgotten victims' of domestic violence (Hidden Hurt, n.d andin case of preschool children this statement is extremely realistic. The incidents of Domestic violence on children are becoming increasingly a matter of concern for researchers and practitioners. It is estimated that a large number of children are exposed to domestic violence. Carlson, 2000 (P.160) has estimated that over 10% to 20% of American children are exposed to domestic violence. However; the reporting of such events is inadequate. The occurrences of domestic violence are far greater in case of custody granted by courts (Edleson et al 2007, p.5). A research by Yales Child study centre (2001) indicates that nearly 4 million children have undergone some experience of domestic violence. Moreover, it is estimated that about 20% of the preschool children are themselves been victims of domestic violence and about 61% happened to have witnessed violence in their society (Vyuong et al. 1993, p.1). The stories of domestic violence of children are sometimes shockingly harsh. According to National Research Council, 1993, in Africa, home violence is the leading cause of the death of children. Not only does the violence at home make children suffer the trauma but it also negatively creates an environment where these children feel the effects of the trauma continually (p.1). The well being of these children is negatively affected and they tend to develop such physical, emotional and behavioral traits that may distinguish them from the children not exposed to domestic violence. The following incidents quoted on NSPCC web site from different sources can be of good insight into the how drastic the problem of domestic violence can turn to be: Every ten days in England and Wales one child is killed at the hands of their parent. In half (52%) of all cases of children killed at the hands of another person, the parent is the principal suspect. (Journalist Briefing, December 2008) On average, every week in England and Wales one to two children are killed at the hands of another person.(Home Office, 2007, Homicides, Firearms Offences and Intimate Violence 2005/2006: Supplementary Volume 1 to Crime in England and Wales 2005/2006.) Each week at least one child dies from cruelty. On average, 67 children in England and Wales are killed at the hands of another person every year. In 2005/2006, 55 children were killed at the hands of another person in England and Wales. All of these incidents have taken place because a child with a domestic violence problem was known to professionals. They neglected or failed to identify the extent of the problems (NSPCC 2008). Domestic Violence In order to understand the impact of Domestic violence on preschool children, it is important to define the term 'domestic violence'. There are number of issues that need to be considered in defining domestic violence. First of all, the exposure of children may be defined narrowly as only physical violence or also by including the verbal and emotional abuse children suffer at homes. Secondly, even within the narrower physical consideration of domestic violence, the incidents of only harsh physical beatings may be considered as well the routine slaps and acts of shoves (Edleson et al. 2007, p.6). In addiction to the definition of domestic violence it is also important to define the term 'exposure' in order to develop the boundaries for the study we are undertaking. Like domestic violence the term exposure may also be narrowly defined as the being within the sound and sight of violence or may be defined broadly considering several other factors, for example, hitting or threatening a child, taking him hostage in order to force mother to return home, forcing a child to witness assault against mother or to participate in the act of abuse, or using the child as spy through interrogation about the mother (p.7). Domestic violence occur in situations where there is some close relationship between two individuals and one of them tries to dominate other using any violent or abusive behavior. This violence includes any physical or emotional assault, sexual abuse, rapes, threats or humiliating behavior (Vyuong et al. 2009, p.4). The incidents of sexual abuse can be divided out into two categories: first the non-contact sexual abuse, the exploitation of children in pornography and prostitution, and secondly, physical contact sexual abuse such as intercourse (4). The emotional violence, nevertheless, has longer lasting effects that the physical one. As a matter of fact however, the practice of domestic violence is not restricted to any class or race though in majority of the cases of domestic violence women are the victims of men (Hester et al. 2002, p.28). Thus, Hester (2002) writes, This includes instances of children witnessing their mothers being stabbed in the head, being attacked with a knife or attempts at strangulation. In one example, the father locked the children in the room with him, whilst he physically attacked their mother, thus forcing the children to witness the violence. Some children remembered violence even though their mother did not realize that they have been aware of it. In one instance an older child recounted the violence she had witnessed as a much younger child (aged 2 or 3), and in another a 5-year old daughter recounted, 'unprompted[ted memories from the past of abuse- that she observed and which- (mother) remembers but never thought (daughter) had seen.'(42) Thus, as a general rule we come to know that children not only are aware of violence, they also remember it and can make sense of it. So thinking that their babies, preschool children, will have no understanding of violence is a fake belief. Even when some mothers have been proud of protecting their young ones from the traces of violence at home, to their surprise the children, though keeping silent, are well aware of what has been happening at home. However, whenever circumstances permit, these children speak up to surprise everyone (Hester 2002, p.42). Several factors have bearing on the impact of domestic violence on children in general though the relationship between domestic violence and its effect on children can be complex as well as multi-faceted (Hurley & Blake 1998, p.103). These factors include age, race, gender culture, religion, child's role and position in the family etc. Among all these factors, age is of the most importance because age influences the children in terms of their ability to make sense of their experiences gives them different options to react in the light of their understanding. However, there is still a lot to be learnt about the complexity of the influence age has on the impact of domestic violence on children. Though the early researchers did not consider any age differences while studying the impact of domestic violence on children, it is now firmly believed that children of different age are differently affected by the violence and have distinctive symptoms of their reaction to it (Hester et al. 2002, 43). The amount of domestic violence escalates overtime and has a widespread impact not only directly on the affected party but also on children indirectly. At the very outset, the mothering relationships deteriorate between a mother and her children especially when mothers do not have the proper time, courage, ability or support to cope. Moreover, children may also experience negative fathering from domestic violence (Hester et al. 2002, p.29). Research and evidence gathered from U.S.A. Australia, Canada and U.K. indicate that children are becoming increasingly at risk of domestic violence including physical and sexual or emotional abuse either directly or indirectly through witnessing the domestic violence against their mothers. Sometimes, however, children become victim as a part of domestic violence against women (Hester et al. 2002, p.29). Carlite (qtd. on Hidden Hurt, n.d.) revealed the impact of the violence on his mother using these words: "People throw around statistics saying that up to 70% to 80% of children of batterers are also abused. That statistics is wrong. Every child who witnesses abuse is a victim of abuse. As an abused child, and then as an adult trying to recover, I was far more affected by witnessing the abuse of my mother than I was the abuse directed towards me." Studies, however, normally separate out child abuse and domestic violence and indirect child abuse is normally neglected in such studies. Furthermore, in case of physical domestic violence against children, researcher, characteristically, tend to examine merely the physical child abuse and overlook the emotional or sexual violence committed against children in a domestic setup as well the emotional trauma they suffer in association against domestic violence against their mothers. Thus the term domestic violence against children encompasses direct physical, sexual or emotional domestic violence as well as the indirect trauma experienced due to negative fathering or physical, emotional or sexual domestic violence against one of their parents. Thus two terms can be coined for the domestic violence against children: direct domestic violence and indirect domestic violence (Hester et al. 2002, p.30). Direct Child Abuse in Connection with Domestic Violence Children can be indirect victims of domestic violence as a result of conflicts between their father and mother or other caregivers as well direct sufferers of physical, verbal or vicious maltreatment (Edleson 2007, p.8). Thus we can divide the occurrence of domestic violence into direct domestic violence and indirect domestic violence depending upon the way it is exercised. Research from the U.S.A. suggests that there exists a link between domestic violence to mothers and child abuse. For example, Hester (2002, p31) quote Thomas (1972) and Boatman (1977) that those men who sexually abused their children also sexually abused their wives or other family members. Consequently, there is growing tendency to consider study the domestic violence against mothers and children together (Hester et al. 2002, p.31). Similarly, evidence also shows that there is a positive relationship between 'mother beating' and child abuse. Even in many cases child deaths are reported as result of domestic violence, fro example the death of Sukina Hammond by her father and Tony Dales by her step father (Hester et al. 2002, p.31). Nonetheless, domestic violence and child abuse are consistent practices both in the U.S.A. and in UK. However, only a fraction of such incidents, mostly those relating to the middle class sector of the population and the ethnic minorities, come to notice of the agencies (Hester et al. 2002, p.32). Thus, it is estimated that at least one third of the children are exposed to domestic violence and the resulting child abuse (Hester et al. 2002, p.33). We, thus, come to the conclusion that in almost every case of domestic violence, there is something to pay for the children either indirectly in terms of witnessing of mother beatings, sexual or emotional trauma or directly in the form of battering, sexual maltreatment or neglect (Hester et al. 2002, p.33-35). Effect of Domestic Violence on Preschool children Domestic violence has devastating effects on preschool children and is present in every segment of the society (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2003.). Though the question 'what is the impact of Domestic violence on preschool children' needs serious consideration, the impact of domestic violence differs form home to home and form community to community. Moreover, the extent by which children are affected within a same home may well be different for different children (Hester et al. 2002). Furthermore, Quoting Spaccarelli et al. (1994) (qtd. in DeJonghe et al, 2005), give account of several other factors that co-occur with domestic violence. These include single parent status, lower family income, lesser maternal education, smaller family size, frequent family moves, parental divorce, paternal drinking and incarceration of father (269). In order to augment this discussion I have found a beautiful poem written by a child exposed to domestic violence cited on hidden hurt (N.d). This poem summarises the impacts of domestic violence in a nut shell as follows: A Childhood Lost I am the eldest one of three I have two brothers younger than me When we were growing up our lives were sad Living at home with our mum and dad We had no money and very little food He spent it on drink and came home in a mood The teachers at my school said how well I did They must have known the secrets I hid How may pairs of glasses can one woman break The bruises, the marks, the lives at stake That's why we slept out on the streets at night For me it was safer, so we used to take flight Away from the man supposed to protect Out into the darkness, did anyone suspect For if we stayed I knew what it would mean A beating for mum would be heard or seen I envied my friends, they had happy lives With dads who actually loved their wives I am now older with kids of my own My dad's 56 and now lives alone He lost his kids, his home and his wife He's dying of cancer, now he's losing his life He's no longer scary, he's no longer bad He's a Grandad who's dying, but he's still my dad. (Hidden Hurt, n.d.: Domestic Abuse Information) In the light of this discussion we come to know that every preschool child is exposed to a typical set of factors within the definition of domestic violence and, thus, every child has a unique problem to address (270). Therefore, the impact of domestic violence on every individual child will rest on how and how much he experiences the domestic violence (Hester et al. 2002, p.40). Therefore, we need to know a lot about the impact of domestic violence on children in terms of race, gender, economic status, disability, sexuality, children's resilience influence, their perceptions and reactions both in the short as well in the long run (Hester et al. 2002, p.41). A common thread, however, among all such cases of domestic violence affecting children is that these homes have 'adjustment difficulties' than non-violent homes and some of the most common impacts of domestic violence can, nonetheless, be sorted out (Hester et al. 2002, p.40). The impact of violence can leave long-term effects on children which not only makes the children suffer throughout their lives but also the society that faces the trouble caused by such devastated personalities of individuals who had the experience of witnessing domestic violence (Vyuond et al, p.2009). The negative impact of domestic violence on preschool children is well documented and a wide range of some particular observation about children facing domestic violence includes a long non-exhaustive list of troubles which includes physical, behavioral and psychological impacts (DeJonghe 2005, 269). As discussed earlier, domestic violence brings has certain negative impact on preschool children, these impact may be of different nature. In general children may develop problems with behavioural, emotional and cognitive functioning though due to variation symptoms in the children understanding the relationship between domestic violence and some particular problems among the exposed preschool children (Edleson 2007, p.7). Generally speaking, the many factors combine to affect children differently depending on their number, type and the risk associated with them. Furthermore, the age, chronicity of the violence and gender also play important role in determining the likely impact of domestic violence on preschool children (p.8). Some researchers like Sinclair (1985) and Mullender 1996, (142) believe that preschool children, normally, show their anxiety through physical symptoms like bedwetting, sleep disorder or stomach aches. Whereas, there are others, like Hiberman & Munson (1977), who believe that preschool children exhibit both physical as well as behavioral disorder as an outcome of the domestic violence (cited Hester et al 2002, p.43). In fact preschool children are the most affected by living with the violence having more behavioral problems. These children showed signs of aggression, low self-esteem and delayed development; physically, emotionally and mentally (Hester et al. 2002, p.44). The impacts of violence o preschool children are numerous. Quoting Carlson, 2000; Edleson, 1999; Rossman, 2001), the Child Welfare Information gateway put these risks as: Children who live with domestic violence face increased risks: the risk of exposure to traumatic events, the risk of neglect, the risk of being directly abused, and the risk of losing one or both of their parents. All of these may lead to negative outcomes for children and may affect their well-being, safety, and stability. These impacts can be generally divided into three main categories: (1) Physical, behavioral, emotional and social problems, (2) Cognitive and attitudinal Problems and (3) Long-term problems (Child Welfare Information gateway). Physical Impacts The physical impact of domestic violence on preschool children, to start with, include physical injuries, bruises and broken bones and some times permanent physical disorder or even death (Hester et al. 2002, p.40). Layzer, Goodson and Delonge (1985) have reported that preschool children, infants specifically, exposed to domestic violence showed signs of poor health, sleep disturbances, and lack of responsiveness (qtd. in DeJonghe, 2005, p.270). Yet there are other researchers, like McIntosh 2002, who are of the opinion that these infants show physical symptoms of their exposure to domestic violence later sometime in their lives (DeJonghe, 2005, p. 270). Two major principles of neurodevelopment, put forth by Perry et al. Al. (1995) (qtd. in DeJonghe 2005, 270), suggest how the trauma may affect the development of an infant's brain differently. These two principles are: (1) use-dependent development and organisation of the brain and (2) the critical and sensitive period of the development of the brain which can dramatically alter the course of development of the brain. The trauma at an infant stage may result in neurological changes in the structure of the brain due to maltreatment. Thus, DeJonghe 2005 (p.270) quote Carrion et al. (2002) who Suggests that children exposed to trauma exhibit changes in the hypothalamic adrenal axis with elevated Salivary cortisol level. The response of children to physical violence is another important factor will may put these children to even riskier incidents. Some of the responses children exhibit as a result of physical violence include actively participating in the violence, distracting their parents of distancing themselves from the scene. Studies have revealed that children exposed to recurring episodes of physical violence develop aggression and or verbal interaction in the conflict and hence get at even riskier situation (Eldeson 2007, p.8). Some children exposed to domestic violence are found to be stuttering too (Hidden Hurt, n.d.). Behavioral Impacts There are several behavioural symptoms that children develop characteristic attitudes like high level of aggression, anger, hostility, oppositional behaviour and disobedience. In addition to these they may also show signs of fear, anxiety, depression and withdrawal (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2003). Regressive behaviours are also witnessed in preschool children where they tend to become more childish and talk like babies, want bottle and dummies etc. they also tend to isolate themselves from the rest of the world (Hidden Hurt, n.d.). Among behavioral disorders, the children exposed to domestic violence may face difficulties at school. They run away from people and even friends. They might face disruptions in living arrangements and schooling. Nightmares sleep disturbances and bedwetting are yet other problems. Such children develop a habit of eating difficulties resulting into weight loss. They might even self-harm themselves (Hester et al. 2002, p.41). Though the empirical evidence of the behavioral impact on the infants is limited, it supports the presence of effects of trauma. Scheeringa and Zeena (1995) used alternative criteria, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), to disclose the existence of hyperarousal, fear and aggression among infants exposed to a threat to a caregiver (qtd. in DeJonghe 2005, p. 270). The researcher then suggested that such a behavior of infants was the result of their extreme dependence on their caregiver. In homes where Domestic violence occurs, especially verbal aggression, preschool children get attuned to such to it. Research has shown that such children exhibit aggressive response to aggressive stimuli from the ongoing task. Furthermore, children in violent domestic circumstances tend to develop distressed behaviour they develop the symptoms of preoccupation of concern and conflict towards their mothers and are most likely to look towards their mothers for support in times of conflict. It is also noted that during experiments, children exposed to domestic violence showed anger through the testing. Furthermore, distress and temperament is observed to be present among children exposed to adverse environment. These children, as a result, exhibit symptoms of reactive temperament when exposed to stress. In other words, children exposed to verbal domestic violence have reached the 'threshold' of distress (DeJonghe 2002, p.271). Sometimes children try to cope with the situation and a result they develop certain stet of activates and rationality to make them falsely believe that they have some control over the problem. This is another example of developing in appropriate behaviour. Sometimes children may hold themselves responsible for the cause of conflict over which they have no control. Anyhow, the children with some confidence in their beliefs tend to be affected by the conflict to a moderate extent (Edleson 2007, p.8). Hidden Hurt (n.d.) gives an emotion-arousing account of boy overwhelmed by the emotional and behavioural disturbance of domestic violence, it is worth quoting at this juncture: At the top of the stairs The young boys sat sobbing At the top of the stairs Trying not to make a sound Hearing the drunken bully Shouting his abuses Knowing that justice won't be found Torn over what to do they just sat At the top of the stairs Awoken from their dreams For what seemed like ages They had laid quite still Hoping the sounds were not what they seem The familiar sounds of crying met them At the top of the stairs When the finally ventured out Courage taking them down Only a few steps Before finally wimping out For many times they had sat At the top of the stairs Wishing they were bigger and older Wanting to run downstairs And pull the bastard off But knowing they'd need to be much bolder The guilty fearful boys that sat At the top of the stairs Heard the pleas for an end 'Til one day their brave Mother Decided her bruises For the last time she would mend The boys now grown men Dearly love their Mother Who for them unconditionally cares Since the day of their Mothers independence They vowed never ever again to just sit At the top of the stairs written by the son of a DV survivor (Hidden Hurt, n.d.: Domestic Abuse Information) Academic Difficulties The children exposed to domestic violence at the earlier ages generally develop problems when they enter the academic arena of their lives with their teachers and in school (Wordes & Nuez, 2002). In addition to his, they show very poor level of confidence, though rarely the case is opposite, and consequently show very low level of performance and have lesser stress bearing and conflict addressing skills. Thy also have lower cognitive abilities which further deteriorates their ability to cope with the academic demands. Moreover, they also tend to develop some sort of bias towards gender and happen to have strong beliefs in male privileges (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2003). Psychological Impacts There are no existing measures of testing the psychological impact of domestic violence on the preschool children. As a result, most of the assessment tools used today are those that are already used for adults. Like Conflict Testing Scales, and thus have serious adverse implications. Consequently, the measures of psychological tests are not standard and are subject to objections as the results are not standard. As a result we use then the generalized findings are presented in this study (Eldeson 2007, p.5). Psychological problems are among the longest lasting ones. Their impact is witnessed right through the life of a victim seriously damaging the ability of the victim to form relationships in the adult life (Hidden Hurt n.d.). Besides the innate ability of the problem of domestic violence itself ahs the capability of destabilising children psychologically and emotionally, in cases of removing a child from home creates even more issues. Problem of removing a child from home is a serious matter. Such children may even get victimised further and as a result develop unexpectedly volatile behaviour due to suffering from psychotic episodes (NSPCC 2008). In addition to physical effects of domestic violence, children may psychologically become mature in advance and develop earlier sense of responsibility. They mat also show aggression to mothers and others. They may well become introvert and develop feelings of guilt or blame. Moreover, children become secretive and silent and sometimes unable to tell. Furthermore, there life may become bitter due to the psychological pressure of fearfulness, insecurity, tension or emotional confusion (Hester et al. 2002, p.40). According to 'emotional security hypothesis' put forth by Davies and Cummings in 1994 the major cause of distress among preschool children is the intense marital difficulties since the conflict that are less intense or resolved have been found to put little impact on children. Nonetheless, among the most severe of the stresses due to this factor are the problems of internalization symptoms, traumatisation and physical aggression. This made it possible to make generalizations about their future emotional security as the research indicated that unresolved and recurring incidents of physical violence due to martial conflicts result in emotional insecurity which in turn results in reduced emotional capacity of regulation (DeJonghe 2005, 270). Thus Wolfe et al., (1985) hypothesised that most severe psychological and behavioral problems in the children are the result of repeated episodes of domestic violence (qtd. in DeJonghe, 2005). In addition to these, these children show signs of excessive crying, sadness, and depression, suicidal behavior in the young age, nightmares and phobia. Furthermore, as a result of domestic violence, preschool children also show signs of eating abnormalities sleeping disorder. They may also develop PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder). Some health problems may also arise in children that can be related to psychological disturbance caused by the stress an anxiety.these health issue include headaches and stomachaches, nausea and vomiting, and insomnia etc. (Hidden Hurt, n.d.). Social Problems These children also face trouble in the social life. They feel isolated and sometimes remain isolated from rest of the society. In addition to this they have trouble in trusting someone. They have very low self esteem and self confidence and thus have very poor social skills. Sometimes observations are quite opposite and these children surprisingly sometimes develop high social skills and have very strong ability to negotiate difficult situations (Hester et al. 2002, p.41). Some of the social problems that are observed among children exposed to domestic violence include poor peer relationships with friends and even with brothers and sisters not only in the early childhood of preschool days but also in the entire life on the long term basis. To worsen this state of mind these children also have very low level of self-esteem and thus lack confidence (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2003). When these preschool children leave the age of childhood and enter maturity, they tend to show symptoms not accepted in the society. These children tend to keep guns and are found to be involved in violence and crimes in some cases (Hester et al. 2002, p.). On the contrary, some children tend to develop increased tolerance towards conflicts and violence (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2003). A recount of parental conflicts of a girl reveals that the children exposed to domestic violence tends to develop such behaviour towards their parents that they can not decide whom to love or sometimes even love them. They want eh issues resolved but if they prolong, these preschool children develop life long memories of all the days of conflicts in their childhood. Even when the parents have not directly abused or battered children, the conflicts among them are too big for children to forget and as result they became indecisive as to what to do (Hidden Hurt, n.d.). Dealing with the Problem Seattle Social Development Project (SSDP) This project has been designed by the researchers at The University of Washington, Seattle, whereby children are engaged in learning activities and at the same time parents are also involved in such tasks that reinforce the family bound between them, thus, changing the overall behavior of the parents as well as the children. This project ahs shown very positive effects on both the children and the parents and as a result there are improvements in the academic performance, family relationships and reduced substance abuse (Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, 1999). Increased Resources for Children in Battered women Shelter As a matter of fact most of the battered women live with their preschool children in the shelters meant to address the trauma they have undergone due to some domestic violence. The irony is that most of these shelters only try to mitigate the effect of domestic violence on women and children are normally ignored. Thus, there is a need for the shelters to have resources for the preschool children as well. These resources are meant to bring about stability in the lives of those kids traumatized by the family violence (BJS, 2007). Intervening Early with Home Visits This strategy requires regular visits at the target homes where there is likeliness of domestic violence taking place. This program helps the affected individuals in many ways. At first, this program allows the visitors to keep an eye on the activities taking place at such homes before and after a birth takes place. Secondly, it allows taking classes for parents to reduce the extent of the problem by logically understanding it. Thirdly, it provides the support as to whom to reach out when needed. These programs have proven to be successful in child abuse and neglect as well as reduced the behavioral and psychological disorders among preschool children (Lee, Aos, & Miller, 2008). References Bureau of Justice Statistics 2007. Intimate partner violence in the U.S. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice. Retrieved July 28, 2009, from http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/intimate/victims.htm#age12 Carlson, B.E. 2000. Children exposed to intimate partner violence: research findings and implication for intervention. Trauma, Violence and Abuse 1 (4). Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. (1999). Blueprints promising programs fact sheet: Seattle Social Development Project.[Onine] Available at: http://www.colorado.edu/cspv/blueprints/promisingprograms/BPP17.html [Accessed 26 April, 2010] Child Welfare Information Gateway. 2003. Children and domestic violence. Bulletin for Professionals. Available at: http://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/domesticviolence.cfm [Accessed 27 April ,2010] DeJhonge, Erika S., Bogat, G. A., Levendosky, Alytia A., Eye, Alaxander V. & Davidson II, Edleson, Jeffery L., Johnson, Kety K. & Shin, N. 2007. Children Exposed to Domestic Violence Scale: User Manual. Minnesota centre Against Domestic Violence, University of Minnesota. Avaiable at: http://www.mincava.umn.edu/cedv/cedvmanual.pdf. [Accessed 23 April, 2010] Hester, M. Pearson C. & Harwin, N. (2002). Making an Impact: Children and Domestic violence. London. Jessica Kingsley Publishers Ltd. Available at: http://books.google.com.pk/booksid=i8gHW1UYHlgC&pg=PA984&lpg=PA984&dq=impact+of+domestic+violence+preschool+children&source=bl&ots=jBKFrbZBV5&sig=6tkMfdt_t5O564rEwqbDJf-ffls&hl=en&ei=UonSS-KoLJL00gSM2c3gDQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CBkQ6AEwAzgU#v=onepage&q=impact%20of%20domestic%20violence%20preschool%20children&f=false [accessed 26 April, 2010] Hidden Hurt: Domestic Abuse Information. N.d. Children and domestic abuse. Available at: http://www.hiddenhurt.co.uk/Children/children.htm [Accessed 23 April, 2010.] Lee, S., Aos, S. & Miller, M. (2008). Evidence-based programs to prevent children from entering and remaining in the child welfare system: Benefi ts and costs forWashington. Olympia, WA: Washington State Institute for Public Policy. Mullender, Audrey. (1996) Children Living with Domestic Violence. [online]. Education Resource Information System. Available at http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ539813&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ539813. Accessed 24 April, 2010. National Research Council. (1993). Losing generations: Adolescents in high-risk settings. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. NSPCC. December 2008 Media Briefings - Child Deaths. Media Centre Sinclair, D. (1985). Understanding wife assault: A training manual for counselors and advocates. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Government Bookstore, Publications Services Section VYuong Linh., Silva, Fabiana & Marchonia Susan., (August 2009). Children Exposed to Violence. [Online] Focus. Available at: http://www.nccd-crc.org/nccd/pubs/2009_childexposure.pdf. [accessed 25 April, 2010.] William S. 2005. Infant Exposure to Domestic Violence Predicts Heightened Sensitivity to Adult Verbal Conflict. Infant Metnatl Health Journal, 26(3).P 268-281. Avaiable at: https://www.msu.edu/mis/publish/Infant_Exposure.pdf. [Accessed 25 April, 2010] Wordes, M., & Nuez, M. (2002). Our vulnerable teenagers: Their victimization, its consequences, and directions for prevention and intervention. Oakland, CA: National Yale Child Study Center. (2001). Yale program that tackles youth violence celebrates 10th anniversary. Retrieved August 7, 2009, from http://opa.yale.edu/news/article.aspxid=3281 Read More