Human Resource Management in Secondary Schools - Essay Example

Factors of job satisfaction in academic work in secondary schools in the public sector in Oman Chapter Introduction The human resources in any organization play a key role through their cordial relationship in building customer loyalty and brand promotion leading to organizational success. However, these days the problem of employee retention has become a challenge as the competition increases and new players are thriving for quick results and recognition in the market. Poaching into old established companies has become a usual practice to the new entrants to make a dent and win market share at the earliest. This is true of not only manufacturing sector but also of the services sector like banking. The employee turnover has two aspects. One, the technological push may compel organizations to downsize the obsolescent workforce to reduce redundancies so as to be cost effective. The second facet relates to the opportunity pull created by the boom in the employment market which attracts the employees to seek better packages of employment by leaving the existing position. In a large scale study of what he termed employee loyalty, Rao (2006) found that job satisfaction had a curious relationship to emotional and behavioral loyalty to a company (the extent to which employees act in the best interests of the company). Defining it as a factor of "hygiene", it was discovered that low scores of employee satisfaction substantially reduced loyalty levels but high scores only marginally improved loyalty. In summary, when it comes to job satisfaction affecting employee behaviour "the penalty always seems to be high, while the reward is relatively low" (ibid. p.113). The human resource department in any organization performs different functions like job analysis, human resource planning, recruitment, training &development apart from other administrative matters relating to employees (Redman T. and Wilkinson A., 2006). Managing culture, integration of workers is the primary function of human resource management (HRM). (Armstrong, Donald Curie, 1997) Thus HRM deals with both internal and external stakeholders of an organization (Redman and Wilkinson, 2006). The human resource management (HRM) found to be the key to build capacities of employees to attain organizational goals (Mathis & Jackson, 2006). It empowers the employees to accomplish their day to day work with proper guidance and leadership. The overall performance of employee, their relationship, the organizational culture, the package of payments to the employees are some of the factors that make employees to remain in an organization or to leave their present organization (Warr& Rackham, 2005). The HRM builds stronger relationships between the employee and the employer (McLagan, 2004). Thus HRM strategy in an organization plays a vital role to attain competitive advantage and banking sector is no exception. (Beardwell& Holden, 2003) There are a range of factors which affect job satisfaction. Some of these are familiar to all professions, such as pay, but some can be expected to have a much stronger influence in academic work, such as a sense of altruistic achievement or intellectual rigor. Particularly in the public sector, a sense of equaling opportunities or enabling the underprivileged may provide a sense of justice which reinforces satisfaction. The ancient view to treat employee as a physical asset is changing in the modern era, where each one of them is considered as a unique individual in the family of business environment. The HRM policies are changing to suit with the ideology of workforce. This became necessary to understand market trends, economic implications, and government policies to redefine the environment of an organization. Davis (1989) considering the changing scenarios and the increasing global competition advocates to focus not only on the management of "aftermath" but also the "before-math". Some of the factors like job satisfaction, policies, procedures, organizational culture, interpersonal relationships between the supervisor - subordinates, pay packages, encouragement to the talent, career advancement need to be included in the HRM policies to ensure employee satisfaction. Employees in any organization whether it is small or big expect to maintain their dignity and morale in their workplace apart from trust, respect and courtesy on daily basis (Bruce, 2003). The managers and the stakeholders need to adapt positive techniques to encourage high performing employees. The managers however can adapt alternative techniques to deal with employees who are unproductive, guilty of misconduct, unmotivated and unhealthy in the organization. This reminds us of the adage that managers should use different strokes to different folks (Fitts, 2004). The role of manager in an organization is compared to a pilot and the managers are advised to fully equip with internal knowledge of their profession, environment and human resources. (Kaplan, 1996) Academia as a profession arguably relies on goodwill and satisfaction. From direct experience of a school staff doing a "work to rule" protest, many of the taken for granted structures and rituals of an academic institution rapidly break down and a culture can quickly disintegrate. Equally, to formalize many of the goodwill tasks (e.g. to expect extra-curricular involvement) can risk resentment - managers of academics are frequently walking a line of relying on voluntary actions without being able to demand them. Job satisfaction is at the heart of this relationship, that loyalty generates fondness and altruistic actions. Staying to chat to a student who is struggling with workload may, for example, be more effective if it comes from a genuine desire to help than if it comes from departmental policy. By placing this study in a specific school in Oman, it is intended that job satisfaction can be understood in the context of a limited cultural audit. Specifying the case study in great detail will allow this dissertation to take its place in job satisfaction literature, enabling readers to draw easy comparisons to their own setting as an important judgment of transferability. As Oman develops as a nation with a greater global perspective, the generation, recruitment and retention of high-quality academics is increasingly vital. Job satisfaction can easily be understood from the retention angle, as reducing dissatisfaction will logically impact on employee turnover. However, by seeking to understand job satisfaction as an influence on loyalty it is hoped that job satisfaction can be understood as affecting recruitment also. For example, the extent to which a role promises satisfaction through clear role descriptions can have an impact in response rates and the caliber of employee attracted. With competition in the Gulf region high for experienced academic staff, the current trend for huge financial incentives may not be sustainable. Small-scale case studies like this may help to break the trend and focus on developing satisfaction cost-effectively. To take an example, loyalty has been shown to increase through a sense of being important to the company (Rao, 2006) - something that requires significantly less money than a full expat package to rival competitors in Abu Dhabi or Dubai. The study uses a mixed-methods approach to take full advantage of triangulation and the increased scope possible to the small-scale researcher thanks to advances in technology. By maximizing efficiency at each stage of the research process, it is hoped that increased time can be given to analysis which will allow exploration of the topic of job satisfaction in greater depth than other work at this level has previously achieved. For example, the literature review was aided by atlas.ti as it allowed argument links to be identified and linked easily across multiple texts, which could then be tagged according to the section of the dissertation for which they were relevant - saving time in the writing stage. Atlas.ti was also useful for analyzing qualitative responses, again allowing links to be made to literature in argument webs. Likewise, questionnaires were collected using online tools which could export cross-tabulated responses into Excel. With a few hours of editing, this data was compatible with SPSS which allowed for convenient quantitative analysis. The Endnote program was also utilised and could link with Atlas.ti to assist in keeping control of accurate references, a seemingly insignificant aspect of a time budget but one which can be punishing if mismanaged (BY DOING REF). It is only within the last year that these suites of software have developed to work fully with each other and the range of digital publishing (HTML, PDF, etc.) options used by academic publishers. As such, this study may well be useful to future researchers attempting to streamline their efforts and push the scope of their research to its highest manageable limits. Chapter 2 Factors affecting job satisfaction across a range of employment sectors - Review of Literature Introduction Rao (2006) examined a range of factors to determine job satisfaction as part of his wider study of employee loyalty. These were pay, role clarity, importance to the organisation, utilisation of personal attributes (incorporating personal attitude), and team spirit. Rao does not easily disentangle the concepts of motivation and satisfaction, and this is understandable given their relationship. In this study, satisfaction is understood as happiness with the status quo while motivation is happiness to continue. At first this may appear a too narrow distinction, so some examples may help. A satisfied but unmotivated employee may be someone with a comfortable job who continues to work well and is counting years until their pension. They bring a lot of benefits to the company but do not necessarily push themselves 100% - if they can satiate their motivation in a rival company, they may well do so. In comparison, a motivated but unsatisfied employee may seek to drive change and improve their working environment. They also bring benefits to the company, but may not be acting in as selfless a manner as is desired. Finally, the satisfied and motivated employee behaves altruistically for the benefit of the company trusting that any rewards their drive generates will eventually be shared. They feel loyal to the company and behave accordingly with little desire to leave the company. For the purposes of this study, job satisfaction will be examined in the traditional sense of being a result of the 5 factors mentioned above, but will also be examined from an alternative perspective. By examining employee loyalty, job satisfaction will be examined as a contributing factor to employee behaviour. Examining satisfaction as both a product and contributing factor within the same group of employees should allow a fascinating insight into how and why academics are motivated to perform. From this, recommendations will be derived for increasing satisfaction. Methodologically, this will be distinguished through measures of intrinsic and extrinsic behavior alongside questions designed to explore feelings of loyalty. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation The link between satisfaction and loyalty, from an employer perspective, is essentially understood through motivation. Companies are driven by innovation, so a satisfied employee is of little use (and could even be counterproductive during, for example, change management initiatives) without being loyal or motivated. Equally, driving motivation through simple behaviourist methods can deliver poor results if employees do not feel any loyalty towards the company. A working definition of motivation is as a personal drive that produces the arousal, direction, and persistence of behaviour. Many theories have attempted to define and explain motivation as a basic drive to minimise physical pain and maximise pleasure, the pursuit of a state of being, an ideal or altruistic concept amongst other drives. Many different theories have been formulated to understand and explain motivation, including attribution theory, expectancy theory, control theory, and goal-setting theory amongst others. Psychoanalytic theories of motivation also propose a variety of fundamental influences from the search for inner meaningfulness (Jung, 1968) to the drive to supply either deficiency or growth needs (Maslow, 1954). These theories foreground the approach of viewing motivation as a personal attribute, which has important methodological implications when studying the motivation of groups of people. Transpersonal and spiritual theories suggest further distinctions can be made as motivation relates to the deeper meaningfulness of one's life (Frankl, 1998). On a more pragmatic level, behaviourist approaches to motivation consider such factors as social recognition, money, power, or fear of failure. The range of factors influencing motivation are usefully categorised as intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation (internal: value-based rewards) involves an individual seeking reward inherent to a task or activity which itself brings pleasure. This may be through simple enjoyment or deeper perceptions of significance and meaningfulness. Bandura (1997) explained it as being connected with a pursuit of self-efficacy. According to Bandura, intrinsically motivated individuals are more likely to believe they are capable of reaching their goals. They are interested in mastery of a skill rather than merely reaching a sufficient level for their current needs. As academic workers, this personality type is more likely to attempt to foster this belief in their students, that a holistic approach is desirable. Their perception of success is rooted in controllable factors, such as the amount of time or effort they devote to study. Intrinsic motivation has also been linked to higher academic achievement (Lepper and Greene, 1978). However, such students may be more easily frustrated and discouraged if their success is compromised by factors outside of their control. This relationship could suggest that academics, as higher academic achievers themselves, may be more likely to bring these attitudes with them. In his work on change management with academics, for example, Trowler (REF) found that those who classed themselves as academics felt less loyalty to an institution (preferring to give loyalty to a subject or department instead of the whole) and be more resistant to traditional managerial methods. Conversely, extrinsic motivation refers to external, tangible rewards. It is seen as originated outside of the individual, for instance financial reward, good marks, prestige or the avoidance of punishment. While Lepper and Greene (ibid) found that extrinsic motivation does not sustain as well as intrinsic motivation, extrinsic factors are arguably subject to less deterioration. For example, the English teacher intrinsically motivated to instil a love of classic literature in their charges may be devastated when their childhood favourite is met with indifference. In comparison, the extrinsically motivated teacher sees little need for their students to love the book to pass their exam, and can be quite happy being reasonably paid to teach something they enjoy regardless of their audience's reaction. Motivation to become versus motivation to remain The extent of satisfaction in a job can also be understood as a result of the closeness between expectations and results. As academic work is a vocation requiring an extensive period of specialized training and study, a range of motivating factors will exist in all employees. The extent to which these are nurtured in a role can have a significant effect on satisfaction - in other words, how closely does the reality match the aspiration A comparison study of students at York and Stavanger (Norway) ITT providers is particularly relevant to this study as it provided a perspective through which to view the motivation on UK teacher trainees (Kyriacou et al., 1999). Compared to their Norwegian counterparts, UK trainees were categorised as more intrinsically motivated. For example, many UK trainees were driven by a desire to help children succeed where many Norwegian trainees cited longer holidays. Kyriacou et al. (ibid) attributed some of this difference to the Norwegian having already started teaching. This is an interesting assumption that motivations may change from intrinsic to extrinsic factors - that motivation to become is different from motivation to remain. Also of relevance of a study seeking to find an integrated model to examine a range of factors affecting teacher motivation and the resultant professional engagement. (de Jesus and Lens, 2005) While the study related more to teachers than those hoping to become teachers, it provides some interesting ways of forming questions to determine motivation levels and also suggests a way of measuring motivation by observing teacher behaviours (professional engagement). While observation was not part of the methodology of the Lens and Neves de Jesus (ibid) study, their articulation of motivation through professional engagement provides a useful starting point. As it may be difficult to decide what observed behaviours show motivation, the reasoning that "teacher professional engagement constitutes the best index of teacher motivation" (ibid. p127) allows a more structured observation. Eleven behaviours were analysed through self-report using Likert scales from Never to Always, although frequency of behaviour does not necessarily provide an accurate measure of engagement. My proposed observation data collection should offer increased depth of data by allowing judgements to be made regarding enthusiasm and work intensity in addition to frequency and duration. To take one example, de Jesus and Lens (ibid) asked participants how frequently they participated in extra-curricular activities and how much they attempted to diversify teaching strategies. There is a wide possible discrepancy between the quality of engagement with these behaviours, and both are arguably easy to merely pay 'lip service'. By observing these behaviours rather than relying on selfreports, it is hoped that a deeper analysis of professional engagement (and therefore motivation) can be gained. For a range of reasons, motivations can prove insufficient - since 1997, 11% of those enrolled on PGCE courses in the UK have voluntarily withdrawn from the course compared to 5-6% prior to 1997(Chambers and Roper, 2000). This suggests that there may be a change in the motivations of those aspiring to teach, or that the same motivations are no longer being satisfied. This dissertation should hopefully go some way towards explaining these findings. Chapter 3 Research Methodology 3.0 Introduction Every research study's primary focus is on collection and analysis of data to compile the corroborative evidence based on which certain conclusions can be drawn. As rightly defined by Saunders et al (Lancaster, G, 2005) research philosophy and the strategy of doing a research involves in-depth investigation of particular contemporary phenomena to unearth its reality depending upon available sources of evidence from different angles. Such methodology gives an answer to the research question. The process of research methodology broadly classified as five parts, 1) research philosophy, 2) research approach, 3) research strategy, 4) time and 5) data collection process. (Saunders et al 2007) However in view of certain constraints particularly, availability of resources, time and the accessibility of data, a researcher may choose different methods out of these five components as part of study. The research methodology adopted in this study is briefly explained below under each head. 3.1 Research Philosophy The research philosophy cannot take any stance in any research unless or otherwise becomes essential. Research philosophy has got both positivism and phenomenologies wherein a researcher may be influenced with own personal prejudices in the research. (Saunders et al, 2007) Acknowledging these facts the researcher of the present study have taken ample care not to be influenced by his own experience but adapted to both deductive and quantitative methods for collection of data through positivist methodology. 3.2 Research Approach A mixed-methods study is proposed so that strength of validity and transferability can be gained through triangulation (Bell, 2005). An initial questionnaire collection will be collected using online survey tools. This will inform the next stage of the study, a small observation case study in an Oman school. The findings of the observation will be triangulated using member-checking and focus group interviews focussing on loyalty behaviours. 3.3 Research Strategy There are different strategies normally adapted for data collection for which research strategy is essential. The quantitative method facilitates to explain the research problem with clear definition. The reliability of data, observations, laboratory experiments are certain indicators considered to form research manipulations. (Hocheistem 1967, Klecka and Tooch Farber, 1978, Grurs Kahn, 1979, FW Fowler, 1988, Saunders 2003) In view of the time constraints, a small target group working as teachers in Ahmed Bin Majid Secondary School is selected as respondents at two different levels: A structured questionnaire as per the objectives of the study was designed and administered to 20 teachers and academic staff working in the school about their job satisfaction. All the questions were simple facilitating easy collection of required information. It is imperative to mention that theory building through a combination of inductive and deductive method may reveal new trends enabling the researcher to collect data in view of the new ideas as rightly mentioned by Sunders et al (2007) and Robson (2002). The researcher during the study, especially in the process of collection of primary data, encountered certain insights. 3.3.1 Grounded Theory and Case Study Semi-structured observation will be achieved by using an observation sheet for assessing predetermined teacher behaviours, their intensity and frequency. Free comments will also be generated for the observer's general perception of participant motivation. This enables the "taken for granted" values of classroom life (Beyer, 2001) to be later subjected to greater scrutiny. While contextual information is always important for case studies, it is an important area of compromise between providing a reader with useful information and protecting the anonymity of participants (Bell, 2005). Aside from following BERA guidelines, participants will also be invited to read and agree to the use of contextual information before the final dissertation submission. Further triangulation and reliability will be achieved through the use of multiple observers, a factor which Camic et al. (2003. p.118) argue improves the "bottom line" of qualitative validity. A colleague will be asked to independently rate a random sample of behaviours to test for agreement and control potential bias. It is anticipated that a 10% check will be sufficient, unless that check highlights regular disagreements in which case there is a logical argument to increase the check to ensure accuracy. Regular major disagreements may highlight methodological flaws at collection or analysis stages and require detailed analysis to find and solve the problem. As rightly mentioned by Sunder et al (2007) about the grounded theory, where combination of inductive and deductive methods are used, the researcher of this study formulated objectives based on earlier studies for collection of data. The researcher opted for Ahmed Bin Majid Secondary School which is equivalent to a regional branch in view of its high volume of transactions is chosen as a case study to analyze the existing HRM policies and the processes of their implementation. Such methodology is widely recommended by various authors (Robson 2002, cited in Saunders et al, 2003) and as such the researcher of the present study adapted the case study method for the purpose of collection of primary data on different components of HRM like payment, promotion, encouragement, etc. Every effort was made to collect the information to investigate the scenario of factors contributing to the job satisfaction for academic staff in the school. 3.3.2 Survey and Questionnaire design A single structured questionnaire was prepared for the academic staff working in the school to find necessary answers to justify the research. Simple questions were structured so as to collect the feedback from respondents without much hassle and within short time. Special focus was made to ascertain the HRM principles like work timings, class strength, promotion, training, payment, working conditions, culture, etc. The respondents were also given an open ended questionnaire facilitating to elicit their views particularly to understand the possible measures of employee retention. Ethical considerations for anonymity can be ensured through the online collection tool, where participants respond with either a chosen username or an automatically assigned number. Questionnaire data has been consistently useful in gaining insight to perceptions of an issue, and provided that questions are suitably formed and tested can provide time- and cost efficient means of gaining a large body of conveniently analysable data (Bell, 2005). This is of particular relevance compared to, for example, interview data which can be overly intrusive when participant introspection is required (ibid). The eleven behaviours examined by de Jesus and Lens (2005) are useful for forming questionnaire items, so that a question could be "to what extent do you expect to diversify your teaching strategies" or "how much preparation time are you will to spend in planning diverse teaching strategies" To ensure these questions are appropriately phrased, a pilot questionnaire will be trialled. Whereas the Lens and Neves de Jesus study used the traditional 7-item Likert scale for responses, this study attempts to avoid the risk of central tendency (Muijs, 2004) by using six items and a providing separate response options for "don't know" and "no strong feelings either way". While some researchers argue for a specific minimum number of participants in order to successfully investigate one topic using interview methods (e.g. McCracken, 1988, argues for a minimum of eight participants), Arksey and Knight (1999) stress that the main aim of sampling is satisfied by collecting data and making constant comparisons until no unique information is being presented, akin to the principles of grounded theory. This judgement can be made during the analysis stage, and is reported here in the conclusions section. 3.4 Collection of Data Before collecting the data, the researcher categorized the data into primary and secondary sources keeping in mind the issues of reliability and validity so that right answer to the research problem is solicited. The questions were separated to two different groups. In view of the importance of reliable data, as described in research design, the researcher followed the transparency explaining the respondents as to why the information is being collected apart from giving an assurance on maintenance of confidentiality while collecting the data. 3.4.1 Secondary Research Methods Every researcher acknowledges the importance of previous work and the studies, which will enable the researchers to complete the study in a shorter period, by complimenting the secondary data with the primary data for analysis (Cameron 2001, p 318). This will enable the researcher to arrive at right conclusion through comparison and confirmation (Blackster et al, 1996: p153). Thus both the primary and secondary data were collected for the present study. The secondary data could be obtained in time using reliable sources of books and other journals. Most of the data is compiled either in the form of literature review or as secondary data and the same is used for the purpose of data analysis. 3.4.2 Primary Data As part of collecting primary data, the researcher adapted quantitative methodology by administering the questionnaire as part of case study method as pointed out by Jankowicz (1991:163). The researcher opted for Ahmed Bin Majid Secondary School which is one of the public sector schools in Oman. Participant selection and sampling method For the initial questionnaire, volunteers will be requested through existing professional relationships. Given that motivation is the topic of study, there are problems of requesting volunteers to offer themselves for study as it risks only representing those people intrinsically motivated enough to reply. However, at this scale of study Bell (2005) acknowledges the necessary compromise of opportunity samples due to limited resources. Through existing relationships with what Broadhead and Rist (1975) calls gatekeepers (e.g. those with power and influence to help drive research aims), there is also a risk that volunteers will be those more loyal to the company. Again, this is a limitation of small-scale and low-budget research and its effects can be minimised simply by being sensitive to the risk during analysis and reporting, exercising caution particularly when discussing generalisability or transferability of findings. 3.5 Limitations of sampling techniques and ethical issues In every study, the limitations will make a strong bearing on the study particularly in regard to the selection of sampling method, the volume of sample selected, the strength of questions structured and the methodology used for collection of data. The researcher of this study acknowledges that the case study method selected is based on the fact that Ahmed Bin Majid Secondary School is one of the public sector schools in Oman. It may also be mentioned here that the HRM policies vary from organization to organization. They cannot be generalized for a questionnaire. The structured questionnaire used for collection of primary data under quantitative methodology for this study is limited to know the feelings of the employees about their willingness to continue in their present job and also to elicit suggestions to improve the performance of job satisfaction in academic staff in Ahmed Bin Majid Secondary School. However the researcher of the present study made every possible effort to prepare the strong base of proper questions to elicit possible information and to justify the conclusions based on the actual perceptions of respondents. The researcher followed the ethical standards and maintenance of anonymity in sharing the views of certain respondents during the interviews or collection of primary data as desired as an ethical issue. Thus the present study has certain limitations in the collection of data and sampling techniques used for want of time and financial support. Methods for improving reliability and transferability Member checking has been argued as key to improving the "bottom line" of validity (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005) as it allows participants to view and critique the judgements of the researcher. In addition to checking simple accuracy, participants may also generate fresh and meaningful insight from seeing how their responses or actions were interpreted. Member checking also assists in judging how well the research might be valued by the wider community to which the participants belong. Through using a range of data collection methods, triangulation of data also aids reliability. Furthermore, collecting data from the same site at various times helps to create multiple snapshots and reduce the risk of fluke results (for example, satisfaction levels may be highest just after payday, lowest in the run-up to Christmas or a government observation, etc.). Within ethical constraints, as much contextual information as possible about the site is included to help the reader judge transferability to their own setting. Further checks following initial analysis The final stage of member checking through interviews relies on the interest of previous participants. Participation is again encouraged by the possibility of reciprocity where research is an exchange (Ritchie and Lewis, 2003) and participants can feel that they are gaining from the study. Sampling for the interviews from questionnaires will be purposive based on initial findings from the questionnaires. For example, if a consensus is shown in the questionnaires then a focus group interview may be the best way to examine consensus feelings (Bell, 2005) and so would be the most appropriate form of interview. However, if a range of differences occur, then individual interviews are best for exploring these differences in a safe and trusting conversation (ibid). 3.6 Summary The research methodology is limited to five broad components where a systematic approach is applied as a strategy for collection of evidence in the form of data. The present study adopts quantitative methodology where questionnaires are devised in consonance to the objectives of the study for academic staff. The researcher took all precautions to be transparent in explaining the purpose as to why the data is collected and also assured the confidentiality of those who shared their views. In view of the known constraints of time and resources, the researcher has to limit the questionnaire to a limited sample to enable the researcher to fulfill the objectives of the study. Thus the researcher adapted both qualitative and quantitative methods for collection of data by deriving certain information from the records and reports of the organizations. However, efforts were to achieve the goals of the study by following research methodology for objective conclusions and findings. Read More