Comparative Analysis of Two World Religions: Buddhism and Islam - Essay Example

?Comparative Analysis of Two World Religions: Buddhism and Islam Buddhism: Brief History Buddhism which originated in India over 2500 years ago was formed by Siddhartha Gotama who eventually came to be known as Gotama Buddha. Buddhism originated in northern India during the 5th century B.C.E and spread to other parts of the subcontinent during the 3rd century B.C.E. Various branches of the religion including Zen, Theravada, and Tibetan Buddhism have emerged over the years due to the influence of various host cultures (Faure, 2011). The term Buddha means an enlightened / awakened one. The concept of Buddhism refers to the adherence to the principles of Buddha or Buddha-hood by its followers thus essentially implying that individuals are inherently lacking in a spiritual sense and that they can only be awakened or enlightened by following the principles of Buddhism. The basic preaching of Buddhism entails individuals to "wake up from restricting delusions, which cause attachment and thus suffering for individuals and those he or she interacts with" (Harvey, 2012: p. 2). Buddhism spread throughout the Asian subcontinent post the demise of Gotama Buddha at the age of eighty in 486 B.C.E. (Eckel, 2009). Buddhism is known to be the first world religions to spread to beyond its place of origin. Theravada Buddhism for instance spread to Southeast Asia during the 1st century A.D. in countries like Burma, North and South Korea, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand and to the Western / European world centuries later. As the religion travelled beyond Asia towards the western world it underwent various changes to suit and appeal to the western way of life (Prebish and Baumann, 2002; Cicoccolanti, 2010). Brief History - Islam: Islam originated in Mecca and was founded by the Prophet Mohammad who claimed to have received revelations from God himself through his angel Gabriel over fourteen centuries ago. It is believed to be the literal word of God handed down to Mohammad in the form of verses. The Muslim community holds that everything Mohammad said and did was the perfect manifestation of the will of God. Mohammad is said to have received these revelations over a period of twenty two years after which the Quran was finally complete. However after his death there were debates over his legal successor and the Muslim community was divided in opinions regarding the same. Part of the community believed Ali, Mohammad's cousin to be the true and legal successor of Mohammad while the other opposed his election as the Caliph resulting in division of the community into Shia and Sunni sects, which eventually came to be known as the two major denominations in Islam (Islamcity, n.d.). World view, primary beliefs: Buddhism: Peace and non-violence are the underlying elements of the Buddhist world views. The Buddhists follow and adhere to the doctrine of dependent origination which entails that anything can only exist due to everything else in the world meaning thereby that nothing in this world can exist on its own and that all things are interdependent on one other. It posits that all things and elements of our lives are directly or indirectly dependent and correlated to one another (George, 2008). The concept of God: Unlike various other religions the concept of God in Buddhism is not described as omnipresent, omnipotent or omniscient creator of the world since Buddhism rejects the idea of the existence of such creator (Sahni, 2008). Cyclic existence: This Buddhist worldview of existence is cyclic in nature i.e. the Buddhists view life as an eternal cycle of life and death where life leads to death which in turn leads to rebirth. The current life of individuals is perceived as one among many in the series of incarnations. The only way to stop or absolve oneself from this cyclical existence is good karma. Buddhism states that the karma or actions of an individual good or bad determines their status in the cycle of birth and death. Good karma can be generated through good behavior i.e. adhering to the principle code of morals and ethics laid down in the religious scriptures (Gwynne, 2011). Islam: Islamic worldviews are shaped by the popular imagination and everyday discourses of people's lives who live by the faith, rather than those triggered by religious scholars. Hence the basic tenets of Islam sacred to the Muslims are accessible to anyone who can read and understand it. Islamic worldviews are based on the following: Belief in one god: Muslims believe is a monotheistic religion and hence strongly believe in only one God i.e. Allah. They believe in the power of angels, the wrath of the demons or Jinns, and the concept of heaven, hell, and damnation as well as the apocalypse. Five pillars of Islam: The five pillars of Islam include Shahada - i.e public confession of one's faith; Salat - offering prayers five times a day; Zakat - social tax or charity; Sawm - fasting during the daylight hours during the holy month of Ramadan; and Hajj - pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca (Armajani, 2011). Concept of original sin: There is no concept of original sin in Islam. Muslims believe that both Adam and Eve were equally responsible for committing a sin by defying Allah's orders, were remorseful of their actions, and were eventually forgiven by Allah (Islamic Bulletin, n.d.). Key Rituals: Buddhism: Recitation / Reciting: Recitation is a dominant Buddhist ritual performed by Buddhists and can be traced back to vedic practices. It refers to the practice of truth utterance which is known to have magical powers. The Buddhists believe that chanting mantras or recitation of various Buddhist sutras invoke the truth and relieve individuals of sufferings. These chants are applicable to wide range of social situations and are known to have various functions and influences on the social lives of people (Kalupahana, 2001). Prayer Wheels: Prayer wheels are equivalent to the rosary, albeit in the form of an ingenious device which includes inscriptions of Buddhist prayers or mantras sealed inside a cylindrical top. These tops rotate with the spin of the wheel leading to repeating of all the prayers and mantras. The wheels are of two types, the smaller ones are made for individual uses which are mostly carried by monks and the bigger ones are placed on roofs, or temples which are turned by the pilgrims or monks or in streams which are turned by the flowing water (Lyons and Peters, 1985: p. 37). Islam: Islamic rituals are centered on celebrating key moments in life such as births, marriages and even death. Ablution / Wudu: This Islamic ritual is an inherent part of the Islamic tradition and is closely associated with purification or cleansing of one's body parts prior to offering their daily prayers. A total ablution is to be performed after certain acts or states of action. Cleanliness has been stressed in several passages of the Holy Quran and is an important pattern of Islamic life (Nasr, 2009). Denominations: Denominations are generally described as one among many religions and refer to different interpretations of the same / parent religion resulting in them accepting different characteristics than the original or main religion. According to Johnstone (2007) religions can be classified on the basis of the following 8 characteristics: Similar to churches but are on good terms with the state and at times, make genuine attempts to influence governmental decisions; adopts a positive and tolerant stance towards other denominations; membership is usually granted by birth but may at times accept converts to increase membership; accept others views and tolerates theological diversity or disputes; follows a fairly strict religious practice of worship or rituals and discourages spontaneous expressions of emotions; appoints a professional religious head or clergy who is appointed through merit and certification; accepts relatively lower participation from members as compared to the churches; draws disproportionately based on class. Buddhist denominations: Buddhism which originated in northern India was divided into several sects and denominations as it spread throughout Asia and beyond (in the Western world) over centuries. It was divided and subdivided into diverse sects assumed according to the local traditions and beliefs, each with its own liturgies, rituals and canon scriptures. However there are two main branches of Buddhism i.e. the Mahayana and the Theravada Buddhism (O’Brien, n.d). Mahayana Buddhism refers to the religion which originated in India and subsequently spread to Nepal, China, Korea, Japan, Tibet and Indonesia. While the Theravada Buddhism which is also known as the Southern Buddhism or the Way of the Elders, spread to countries like Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, and Cambodia. The Mahayana Buddhism is relatively more liberal of the two and focuses on the life of the Buddha, while Theravada Buddhism is conservative in approach and holds to the Pali canon and early accounts of life and experiences of the Buddha (Boa, 1990: p. 34). Characteristics: Buddhism is a religion of peace and religious tolerance and also for its strong distaste for worldly order. Buddhism does not show any interest or interference in worldly matters and is mostly detached from the social community since it is an individualistic religion. Islam on the other hand being a Semitic religion displays a strong inclination towards participation in the state and political affairs, and militant pursuits in order to enforce reconstruction of the world. Buddhism observes monastic traditions and believes in shunning the world in order to pursue truth and spiritual enlightenment and hence seeks exclusion (Harris, 1999). There are barely any inter-religious conflicts among the various denominations and sects within Buddhism and they are generally found to be tolerant of each other's views. The members are usually granted membership on birth but converts are also readily accepted within the religion. Diverse practices and rituals of worship exist among different regions however all of them follow the same basic principle of ‘no idol worship’ as there is no concept of God in Buddhism. All Buddhist monasteries have monks or religious masters who act as the religious head of their respective monasteries or temples. There is no class based system in Buddhism and all followers are equally welcome at the Buddhist places of worship (Alldritt, 2009). Islam: Similar to most of the religions in contemporary times, Islam too is divided into various denominations which hold similar fundamental beliefs however differ from each other on theological and legal grounds. Islam is divided into two major sects i.e. the Shias and the Sunnis. A majority of the world's Muslims are Sunni's while Shias comprise of the minority population, with others following various diverse sects within Islam such as Sufism, Wahabbism, etc. Sunni Islam is the biggest denomination in Islam and follows the Sharia Law while Shia Islam is relatively smaller and observes a strict adherence to Ali the nearest relative of Mohammad who they follow and recognize as Mohammad’s heir (Malbouisson, 2007). The religious head or leaders also known as the Imaam in Islam are appointed based of their qualification of the sacred text i.e. the Holy Quran and are entrusted with the responsibility of leading the daily prayers five times a day at their local mosques. There is no single universal religious head like the Pope in Christianity (Beckford and Demerath, 2007). Similar to Buddhism, membership in Islam is granted by birth but converts are also welcome to join the said sect based on fulfillment of certain conditions. Characteristics: Both the Islamic denominations play a key role in influencing governmental decisions and are at times loggerheads with each other due to inter-faith conflicts and differences. Although both the religions follow the same fundamental faith but are divided in their opinions and views on the legal successor of Prophet Mohammed resulting in a series of conflicts which in turn have led to violent altercations between the two sets (Wynbrandt, 2010). Assessment as per Johnstone’s (2007) definition of religion: According to Johnstone (2007) Religion is defined as a “Religion is a set of beliefs and rituals by which a group of people seeks to understand, explain, and deal with a world of complexity, uncertainty, and mystery, by identifying a sacred canopy of explanation and reassurance under which to live” (p. 16). Both Buddhism and Islam have a specific set of beliefs and practices which are deemed as sacred. However Buddhism and various variations of it, maintains a detachment from supernatural beliefs as well as all forms of non-physical phenomenon. There is no concept of God as is observed in other religions or supernatural beings. Buddha himself is not regarded as God and the relationship between Buddha and his followers is not that of a god like being and his worshippers but that of a teacher and students (Owen, 2011). Islam on the other hand strongly believes in the existence of supernatural beings and unseen forces of nature such as ghosts, jinns, spirits, Satan etc. There are vivid descriptions of such creatures in the Holy Quran. In Islam there are vivid descriptions of god like creatures who are either to be revered or feared based on their characteristics and the Muslims across diverse sects and denominations stand by the notion that there is only one God – Allah, who created the universe and they live by it (Ansari, 2006). Assessment of Buddhism and Islam as per Johnstone’s (2007) group characteristics: According to Johnstone (2007) a religious group has the following five key characteristics or features: i. It comprises of two or more people ii. It involves a body of beliefs iii. It involves a set of practices iv. It involves moral prescriptions v. It involves the sacred Both Buddhism and Islam comprise of wide number of followers across the world, and hold by a certain body of beliefs and follow a set of practices and rituals1 and moral prescriptions laid down by their respect religious heads or founders which are considered sacred. Hence both the religions fulfill all the group characteristics listed by Johnstone (2007) and fit perfectly with the description. Assessment: Use of religiosity in measuring independent and dependent effects specific to this religion: Religions: Buddhism, Islam Dependent Variable – Economic growth Independent variables – rituals or observances Hypothesis – Economic growth can be fostered through traditional religious observances or (Swenson, 2009). According to a study conducted by a group of Harvard researchers after compiling data from over four decades from various countries across the globe, it was observed that religious beliefs and practices are historically known to play a significant role in the economic growth and development of nations particularly in the developing nations. This observation is however is based on the strong religious beliefs and the attitudes of people towards the concept of hell (Fitzgerald, 2009). Various studies have been carried out ever since to explore the relationship between religion and economic growth with particular emphasis on Islam, Christianity and Hindusim (Barro & McCleary, 2003). Adam Smith in "Theory of Moral Sentiments" emphasizes the manner in which the concept of a supreme being acts as an incentive for individuals enabling them to practice self-control and manage themselves in appropriate manner (Daniels & Ruhr, 2005). Given the fact that human capital is an inevitable tool for economic growth it is all the more helpful when the individuals adhere to a strict code of moral ethics guided by their respective religious beliefs. The concept of morality is enforced when individuals are aware of the negative consequences of their misbehavior through a religious perspective (Anderson, 1988). On the basis of various studies carried out by researchers to study the impact of Islam on 'Zakat2' i.e., alms collected for charity purposes, and the Islamic approach to banking have played a key role in reducing poverty in the Middle East. The system of Zakat ensures that the poor are able to increase their income as well as capital and affords them the ability to effectively manage their income. The increase in income of the poor who are generally a disproportionate part of a society, further ensures greater affordability, which in turn increases the consumption of goods and services. Also greater income at their disposal enables them to have equitable and easier access to facilities such as good education, nutrition and health, and employment thus empowering them to become contributing members of the economy leading to faster economic growth (NurBarizah & Abd Rahman, 2005). According to Fitzgerald (2009) "... religious denominations affect economics by creating bonds of trust and shared commitment among small groups, both necessary qualities for lending and trade". Key metaphors used in sociology of religion studies: Both Buddhism and Islam can be described according to the metaphor – Sacred Canopy. Sacred canopy: Sacred canopy offers a moral code of laws and spiritual sanctuary offered by the said religion to its followers as well as their society. It enables formation of various communal bonds where people share their common sets of beliefs. This common sacred bond helps them overcome the various problems encountered by them in their day to day lives as well as resolve issues concerning their existence by finding answers through their shared set of beliefs. The term 'sacred' refers to an unknown power which is believed to exist in some or the other form in certain objects of experience (Kitiarsa, 2008). Sacred canopy also refers to a tradition whereby the members are granted access to the religion through birth or their association with family or relatives belonging to the religion of their birth. In both Buddhism and Islam membership is granted by birth and hence all Buddhists and Muslims are covered under one sacred canopy, of their respective religions. This could mainly be attributed to the fact that Buddhism has no concept of God but share a common founder while Islam believes in only one God – Allah. In polytheistic religions however the metaphor – religious marketplace would be more applicable as the individuals have the choice of worshipping various gods according to their own choices and have the freedom to practice any ritual pertaining to their god. Hinduism for instance can be aptly described by the metaphor – Religious marketplace. Critical discussion of concepts / theories: Buddhism: Dynamic complex peace theory: Peace is described as a constant and interactive process and is dependent on the actions of individuals. The Buddhist perception of the concept of peace is similar to this notion whereby it is stated that the complex nature of the societies in which we live and the collectiveness of peace, war, conflicts etc contribute and affect the notion of peace. The Buddhist worldview of peace as a collective product is based on the principle that the existence of all elements together influences the process of peace. The process of peace however is perceived as holistic when applied to different contexts such as schools, or families or other such collective groups. This is described by various researchers and religious scholars as the ultimate and most appropriate vision of peace (Turpin and Kurtz, 1997). Causes of violence and conflict: Buddhism is a religion that is founded on the principles of peace and non-violence and acknowledges the various factors which disrupt the harmonious social fabric on account of individual actions. According to the Buddhist ideology violence and conflict occur due to a combination of various factors and conditions and the only way to overcome and resolve such conflicts is to address and eliminate the very factors that lead to such conditions that propel violence. This can be achieved through the application of the Buddhist principle of achieving body consciousness which help in analyzing the causes via three key channels – the internal, external and the root. Furthermore conflicts arise due to malicious thoughts originating within an individual’s mind / consciousness which in turn cause them to indulge in violence and anti-social behavior. Through the application of the Buddhist principle of dependent origination the process of non-violent communication can be invoked among individuals preventing them from causing or spreading violence and lead a life full of happiness and peace (Sivaraksa, 1992). Islam: The Ummah: The Ummah refers to a conglomeration of all individuals irrespective of their age, gender or tribe to which they belong, under one common ideology or social vision. It refers to a society where people belonging to a common faith work together in harmony to achieve a common goal. This Islamic concept endorses the ideology of a nation without boundaries comprising of individuals or believers who are tied together with a mutual obligation of morality, respect, and civilized behavior. The Umma perceives the sovereign state as one belonging to God and ruled by those who are only acting in the capacity of his executives. Hence according to this concept every citizen in the Islamic state must make contributions to the community in order to enable the foundation for a safe and better future for themselves as well as their communities. It believes that God created society from a single pair of man and a woman and hence everyone must act collectively rather than stay in constant conflict with each other (Thierstein & Kamalipour, 2000). Cognitive dissonance theory: This theory posits that individuals tend to be consistent with their beliefs and ideologies hence when faced with inconsistencies which contradict their line of thought they often experience psychological discomfort which in turn leads to cognitive dissonance (Matz, Hofstedt, and Wood, 2008). Islam prides itself in being founded on the true words of God and as the only authentic religious book which remains unaltered unlike its counterparts i.e. the Old and the New Testaments. Millions of Muslims around the globe have a strong belief and conviction in the superiority and power of their religion and their God. However the current reality tends to contradict their notion leading to a predicament that essentially challenges their religious supremacy resulting in cognitive dissonance. The massive and long-drawn struggle in various Muslim communities and regions in recent past, causing them to succumb to the foreign pressures and accept defeat due to foreign military might has clashed with their fundamental theological ideology of being the supreme religion (Ruthven, 2006: p. 424). Similarities and differences between Buddhism and Islam from a sociological perspective: Similarities: Both the religions reject the notion of idol worship. Both the religions can be categorized under the metaphor - religious canopy where the followers diligently follow the preaching of their respective founders who themselves are not considered deities but revered for their greatness, all the same. Both the religions have various denominations. Buddhism is divided into two largest denominations - the Theravada and the Mahayana while Islam is divided into - Shia and the Sunnis. Differences: Buddhism There is no prohibition in Buddhism regarding the moral dress code but individuals are expected to choose and distinguish between the right and the unacceptable forms of clothing based on the teachings of the Buddha. Islam on the other hand has strict dress code which compels both men and women to dress a certain way. Modesty is central element in Islamic code of dressing. Social customs and traditions such as Marriages for instance have no religious connotations in Buddhism. It is just regarded as a social convention and has nothing to do with religion. In Islam however the Quran contains elaborate passages regarding customs and ethics to be followed by both men and women, and it is obligatory for them to follow the word of God. Furthermore Buddhism promotes and supports monogamy while Islam is polygamous in nature. Islam grants and allows men to marry as many as four wives provided he is able to treat them all equally. Buddhism promotes vegetarianism and prohibits consumption of alcohol. Islam too, prohibits alcohol but does not promote vegetarianism. References: Alldritt, L. D., (2009). Buddhism. Chelsea House Publishers. Anderson, G. M., (1988). Mr. Smith and the preachers: The economics of religion in the wealth of nations. The Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 96 (5): p. 1066-1088. Ansari, M., (2006). Islam and the Paranormal: What does Islam say about the supernatural in the light of Qur'an, Sunnah, and Hadith. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse Publishing. Armajani, J., (2011). Modern Islamist movements: History, religion, and politics. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Publication. Barro, R. J., McCleary, R. M., (2003). Religion and Economic Growth across countries. American Sociological Review, Vol. 68 (5): p. 760-781. Beckford, J. A., Demerath, J., (2007).Sociology of Religion. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Books Publication. Boa, K., (1990). Cults, world religions and the occult: What they teach how to respond to them. Eastborne, England: SP Publications Inc. Cicoccolanti, S., (2010). From Buddha to Jesus: An insider's view of Buddhism and Christianity. Oxford, UK: Monarch Books Publication. Daniels, J. P., Ruhr, M., (2005). God and the global economy: Religion and attitudes towards trade and immigration in the United States. Socio-Economic Review, Vol. 3 (3): p. 467-489. Eckel, M. D., (2009). Buddhism. New York, NY: The Rosen Publishing Group. Faure, B., (2011). Unmasking Buddhism. California: John Wiley & Sons Publication. George, V. A., (2008). Paths to the divine: Ancient and Indian. Washington D.C: The Council for Research in Values and Philosophy. Gwynne, P., (2011). World religions in practice: A comparitive introduction. London, UK: Blackwell Publishing. Harris, I., (1999). Buddhism and politics in twentieth century Asia. London, UK: Continuum Publishing. Harvey, P., (2012). An introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, history, and practices. New York: Cambridge University Press. Kalupahana, D. J., (2001). Buddhist thought and ritual. Paragon House Publishers. Kitiarsa, P., (2008). Religious commodifications in Asia: Marketing gods. London, UK: Routledge Publication. Johnstone, R. L., (2007). Religion in Society: A Sociology of Religion. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall Publication. Lyons, E., Peters, H., (1985). Buddhism: The history and diversity of a great tradition. University of Pennsylvania Musem of Archeology. Malbouisson, C. D., (2007). Focus on Islamic issues. Nova Publishers. Maertz, C. P., Hassan, A., & Magnusson, P. (2009). When learning is not enough: A process model of expatriate adjustment as cultural cognitive dissonance deduction. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Vol. 108 (1): p. 66-78 Nasr, S. H., (2009). The heart of Islam. New York, NY: Harper Collins Publication. NurBarizah, A. B., Abd Rahman, A. R., (2005). A comparitive study of Zakah and modern taxation. Journal of King Abdul Aziz University: Islamic Economics, Vol. 20 (1): p. 25-40. Owen, F., (2011). The Bodhisattva's brain. Massachussetts: MIT Press Prebish, C. S., Baumann, M., (2002). Westward Dhamma: Buddhism beyond Asia. Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. Ruthven, M., (2006). Islam in the world. London, UK: Oxford University Press. Sahni, P., (2008). Environmental ethics in Buddhism: A virtues approach. London, UK: Routledge Publication. Sivaraksa, S., (1992). Seeds of peace: A Buddhist vision for renewing society. Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press. Svenson, D., (2009). Society, spirituality, and the sacred: A social scientific introduction. Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press. Turpin, J., Kurtz, L. R., (1997). The web of violence: From interpersonal to global. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Thierstein, J. R., (2000). Religion, law, and freedom: A global perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: Greenwood Publishing. Wynbrandt, J., (2010). A brief history of Saudi Arabia. New York, NY: Infobase Publishing. O'Brien, B., (n.d.). Brief guide to major schools of Buddhism [Online] Available at: [Accessed: July 14, 2013] Islamcity (n.d). Islam and History in Arabia and the Middle East [Online] Available at: [Accessed: July 14, 2013] Islamic Bulletin (n.d.). Islam beliefs and practices [Online] Available at: [Accessed: July 15, 2013] Read More