Religions in the World - Essay Example

RELIGIONS IN THE WORLD Looking into the history of the world at large, it becomes evident that man has always been in search of some supernatural power, which can help him at the need of the hour, and can provide him with food, clothes, protection, shelter and mental relief. Actually, in the ups and downs of life, such moments come when man finds himself completely helpless and frail. He knows his limitations and seeks the support from unseen power, which can bless him with mental and physical relief as well as can save him from disasters, calamities and troubles. Hence, belief in one supernatural power or the other is called religion in crude sense. Humans have, Acharya submits, formed their own beliefs (called probability belief in mathematics and science) about the set of unknowable elements of the universe.  They have branded their beliefs about the unknowable as religion. (2006: 2) Though religious beliefs differ from society to society as well as from one community to another, yet no human culture can be viewed as a society without religion. There exist countless religions in the world, but main faiths among them include three Abrahamic religions (i.e. Judaism, Christianity and Islam), Buddhism, Jainism, Confucianism, Hinduism and others. The present paper aims to focus its research on Judaism, Islam and Confucianism for the comparative study, so that their scholarly views could be drawn out in order to assess and estimate the commonalities and differences. The researcher personally interviewed one religious leader and two common men from the Jewish synagogues, Islamic mosques and Buddhist temples situated in Philadelphia, so that the true picture of the religions under study could be observed. The study has been focused on the status of racial discrimination and homosexuality in the three religious beliefs under study. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Hypothesis: The researcher has formulated the following hypothesis for the conducting of the present study: The broader the visions and studies of the individuals belonging to divergent religious faiths, the brighter the probabilities of having similarities in their views and opinions The main hypothesis has been supported by the following sub-hypothesis: The more humane the dogmatists and clergy, the brighter the chances of peaceful atmosphere in the region Concepts: The concepts involved in the present research include: i. Broad Vision: The term broad vision refers to the ideas, notions and views which are free from racial, ethnic, regional, religious and status prejudice or hatred. In the present study, the term simply means the opinions of the religious people which are free of narrow sightedness. ii. Religious Faiths: The term religious faiths simply refer to the sets of spiritual beliefs that describe the duties and obligations of the individuals towards their worshipper as well as spiritual mentor. iii. Dogmatists and Clergy: Dogmatist and clergy refer to the religious people who maintain solid and determined opinion about religious, social, political and cultural phenomena prevailing around them. The clergy are usually the spiritual guides and provide the masses with guidance and support in religious matters. Monks, priests, and mullahs come under the fold of clergy. iv. Proficiency: Proficiency refers to the ability and expertise a man has been gifted, with the help of which he proves himself as a useful member of society. In the present study, proficiency and brilliance stand for the professional talent and skilled exercised by the religious personnel while rendering their services at a place meant for meditation, contemplation and worship. v. Racial Discrimination: Racial discrimination means entering into interaction with the individuals on the basis of the race to which they belong, and showing prejudice and bias towards one or more racial groups and communities. Due to globalization, the people from pole apart regions of the world have arrived in the USA, UK, Canada, Australia and other developed nations of the world, which has created a mixed society where divergent racial, ethnic and religious groups live under one and the same environment. vi. Homosexuality: Homosexuality stands for physical or sexual relationship between the members of same sex. Though intercourse is not necessary in same sex relations, yet main purpose of such union is sexual pleasures and intimacy. RESEARCH PROCEDURE Universe: Since the present research has been conducted about the views and opinions of the individuals belonging to divergent religious beliefs, the individuals from different age-groups and socioeconomic statuses living in Philadelphia have been selected for the present study in order to give significant representation to the religious people. Sampling: The researcher has applied quota (non-probability) sampling for the current study. Three respondents from each of the three religious groups have been interviewed in order to get representation of the individuals related to the faith at any scale. The researcher personally interviewed the male respondents in Philadelphia City. It took two weeks in the gathering of data. Tools for Data Collection: The researcher has applied interview-schedule as the tool to collect answers from the units of analysis i.e. respondents for the present study, and personally interviewed all the respondents during the research process. Interview-schedule consisted of three sections and thirty questions. Section 1 aims to enquire about age, sex, job/business nature and professional status of the respondents, which carried nine questions. Section 2 was developed to enquire about their views on different socioeconomic problems with religious points of view. Last section focuses upon the nature of the respondents’ views on differences on the basis of religions. This section contains fourteen questions in it. 1- Pre-testing: Pre-testing was conducted to draw out errors and flaws in the interview schedule. At first, one respondent was interviewed and slight changes were made in questionnaire after the pre-testing. 2- Field Experiences: The researcher conducted his research while carrying out interviews to have an easy access to the synagogues, mosques and temples. Most of the respondents were amicable and friendly while making response to the questions, and only reluctant while giving details of their financial position as well as their sentiments about their rival groups. But an over-whelming majority remained cordial in providing the details of their sentiments and emotions. GENERAL FINDINGS OF THE RESEARCH The present study was conducted by applying non-probability sampling in order to give representation to the respondents belonging to different age groups and professions. The researcher personally visited synagogues, mosques and temples as well as visited websites of different religious faiths. It was found that most of the religious people have very negative opinion about observing discrimination on religious, racial or ethnic bases. Two third of the Muslims and Jews declared killing of the member of rival religion as a great sin, while the Buddhist completely condemned target killing and suicidal attacks on the innocent population. The Jews and Muslims viewed homosexual marriages, relations and activities as absolutely sinful and against the teachings of the Holy Scriptures, while Buddhists suggested such relations with the consent of the parties. Hence, Buddhists maintain more lenient views about homosexuality in comparison with Judaism and Islam. RESPONDENTS’ VIEWS ON RACIAL DISCRIMINATION Racial discrimination means observing of prejudiced behaviour on the basis of the race and ethnicity of the individuals. The contemporary era has given birth to cultural amalgamation and acculturation; consequently, the people belonging to divergent racial and ethnic background have started migrating to developed countries in search of better job opportunities as well as for trade, business and education, and superior health securities. Hence, multiple races are residing under the same environment and enter into interaction with one another in developed countries of the world at large. White Anglo Saxon Population is considered as the most prejudiced group, which maintains feelings of hatred and dislike for the Asian, Far Eastern and African American communities. Since, the members of major religious groups belong to different races; the researcher was determined to gather the views of the religions under study on racial discrimination. During last week, the researcher visited Beth Zion Beth Israel Temple, named after Bethlehem, Israel, the most sacred place for Jews on the earth, Germantown Jewish Centre and Congregation Rodeph Shalom on Friday evening and Saturday morning and noon respectively. The researcher found there Rabbis as well as men and women in the synagogue busy at prayers and meditation. The researcher had an idea that the Jews considered them as the most superior race of the world, and the progeny of the holy prophets sent by God to guide the humanity. The Jews cite Holy Scripture Old Testament, Holy Torah and Gospel as the source of their spiritual and moral guidance. They believe in life after death, where the transgressors will be punished and virtuous would be rewarded. They share belief in Oneness of God, Day of Resurrection and reward and punishment with the Christians and Muslims. Almighty God, according to the Abrahamic religions, has divided the humanity into two categories: one who those are transgressors and breakers of the covenant of God, and imitate the path of Satan; and the other ones are those who sincerely comply with all the terms of the sacred covenant. The individuals, tribes, clans and communities which did not obey the word of God and committed crimes and practiced deviancies by following the path of Satan, were inflicted misery and wrath of the Lord. On the other hand, the nations which remained obedient to their Lord, and displayed virtue and evaded vice, were blessed with the spiritual leadership and God was pleased with them. The reward in the form of God’s favor and mercies was bestowed upon them and were declared as the people of God. Almighty God has narrated the incidents of their sacrifices and great velour in the Scriptures they displayed while facing mountains of hardships and their foot neither trembled nor wavered in any sort of turmoil or turbulence. The name of the holy prophet Abraham is the most prominent among all. Being the descendants of Abraham, Jews view themselves as the chosen seed. Four of the respondents were common men and replied the questions of the researcher very politely. They submitted to state that there was no room for abhorring the people on the foundations of race or ethnicity, as physical appearance and ancestry are absolutely dependent on God’s will and commands. The respondents denied any feelings of dislike for the Asians, Blacks and other ethnic groups, yet insisted that the Jews are the selected people of God, and enjoy distinction because of their superior ethnicity. Somehow, one of them viewed European race as the superior one, as the Europeans have great contribution in the fields of science and technology, as well as have rendered outstanding services in various science disciplines including biology, medicine, physics, computer sciences and others. One of the respondents refuted the very idea that the Jewish community should allow non-Jews enter in their community. He believed that since Jews are direct descendants of the prophets, non-descendants should not enjoy the same status confined to the by-birth Jews. Two of the respondents were female Jews, who argued against ethnic prejudice and looked for equality and freedom of the humanity at large. They favored equality and liberty for women, and discarded the concept of lower status for women. Somehow, both the female respondents displayed their disliking for the Arab community and declared them as the offspring of the bond woman (i.e. Hagar), as majority of Arabs is the children of Abraham and his Egyptian concubine Hagar, while Jews are the children of Abraham and his wife Sarah, according to the Old Testament. Their answers had contradictions, for at one place they denied any racial bias, and at the other they made distinction between the children on the basis of the status of mothers, neglecting the very reality that both Ishmael and Isaac were the sons of same father i.e. Abraham. Hence, female respondents appeared to be having different views on racial and ethnic discrimination than the male respondents. The researcher also interviewed two Rabbis, the spiritual leaders of the Jewish community. They had very clear views about racial discrimination, and seriously condemned it by declaring it as the insult and humiliation of the humanity at large. One of the Rabbis cited the verses of the Scriptures that condemned racial discrimination in these words: “Wherefore, my sentence is, that we trouble not them, which from among the Gentiles are turned to God:  But that we write unto them, that they abstain from defilements of idols, and porneos and pniktos and blood.  For Moses of old time hath in every city them that preach him, being read in the synagogues every Shabbat.  (Acts 15:19-21) The Rabbis were of the view that Moses condemned idolatry, immorality, dishonesty and other wicked deeds prevailing in any part of the world, and hence preached every community without discrimination. It is therefore, they opined, there was no place for discrimination on the base of race, ethnicity and region. The researcher visited Muslim centers and mosques belonging to Sunni and Shiite Muslims. Both of these sects refuted the very idea of racial discrimination and declared it against the very teachings of Islam. One of the imams cited the golden words of the Holy Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) “All mankind is from Adam and Eve, an Arab has no superiority over a non-Arab nor a non-Arab has any superiority over an Arab; also a white has no superiority over a black, nor a black has any superiority over a white- except by piety and good action.” (The Last Sermon: quoted in soundvision.com) The Arab respondents appeared to be somewhat arrogant because of their race, and defended the statute of law prevailing in their country regarding prohibiting any non-Arab from giving citizenship rights. They admitted that racial discrimination was against the teachings of their religions, yet they viewed themselves as ethnically better than the non-Arabs. The researcher interviewed the female respondents at the local Islamic library, where they also supported social equality and freedom of thought and action within the limitations described by their religion. Somehow, they viewed males somewhat superior to females, because the male were the custodians and financers of the females. The also cited the Holy Koran, which declares males as the protector of females. As the Holy Koran says: “Al-rijal qawwamun ‘ala al-nisa’” (4: 34: quoted in brandeis.edu) One of the Shiite respondents cited the Holy Prophet’s attitude towards slaves, particularly the African slave Bilal, whom the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) had appointed for a very important and dignified mission of calling for the prayer five times a day. In addition, he cited the behavior of Ali Bin Abu Talib, (first cousin and son-in-law of the Holy Prophet) towards the meek and slaves, where Ali offered the diet and clothing to the slaves better than he used himself. The Buddhist temples were also situated in Philadelphia, where the researcher interviewed nine respondents in three days. The researchers found the Buddhist more absorbed in their prayers and had least care of their surroundings. They refuted the very idea that the people belonging to Buddha’s land have any superiority to others, and humbly viewed that the concepts of superiority and inferiority have no place at all in their religious belief. “The main teaching of Buddhism, the Dharma, focuses on the Four Noble Truths which are that life is suffering (dukkha), the cause of suffering is the desire for the pleasures of life (tanha), the way to end suffering is by overcoming desire and experiencing enlightenment (Nirvana) and to overcome desire, one must follow the principles of the Middle Way or the Eightfold Path. These principles of morality, meditation and wisdom are right or perfect understanding, thinking, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration or contemplation.” (Quoted in racismnoway.com.au) The spiritual leaders viewed racism as the negation of Buddha’s teachings, which focus on the principles of equality, humility and chastity. RESPONDENTS’ VIEWS ON HOMOSEXUALITY Both the Abrahamic religions under analyses, i.e. Judaism and Islam, vehemently condemn homosexual relationship, and declare it a clear perversion, great sin and deviancy from the noble teachings of their religious beliefs. On the other hand, Buddhism does not provide any clear statement regarding same sex relations. While replying to the questions of the researcher, all the Jew respondents, including males, females and Rabbis, abhorred homosexuality. The rabbis quoted the words of Torah, which condemn same sex relations. The Leviticus clearly determines moral principles and ethical obligations, where same sex relations are sin and taboo. In its words: “And you shall not cohabit with a male as one cohabits with a woman; it is an abomination” (Leviticus, 18:22) One of the Rabbis cited another chapter of Leviticus that nullifies and condemns homosexuality and suggests death sentence for the persons committing the same: “And if a man cohabits with a male as with a woman, both of them have done an abominable thing; they shall be put to death; their blood falls back upon them.” (Leviticus, 20:13) Hence, no Jew respondent supported homosexuality at all. Islamic views are almost one and the same in respect of homosexuality. The Shiite Muslims even condemn anal sex with wife, and recommend death penalty on committing sodomy. The Muslim scholars cited the Holy verses of Koran, according to which it is one of the greatest sins committed on the earth. The Muslim imams referred to the Holy Koran, which cites the wrath of God on the people of the Prophet Lot (Lut in Arabic), who practiced homosexuality as a custom. The Koran says: “We also sent Lut: He said to his people: “Do ye commit lewdness such as no people in creation (ever) committed before you? For ye practice your lusts on men in preference to women: ye are indeed a people transgressing beyond bounds.” (Quran 7:80-81) The respondents also quoted the saying of the Holy Prophet about homosexuality in these words: “Kill the one that is doing it and also kill the one that it is being done to.” (In reference to the active and passive partners in gay sexual intercourse) (Quoted in missionislam.com) Hence, the researcher concluded that both Judaism and Islam maintain similar opinion on homosexuality. The Buddhist respondents were not clear about their teachings on homosexuality. Somehow, majority of them did not appreciate the idea and viewed it as the part of extra marital relationship, which is quite unfair according to the sayings of Buddha. One of the respondents quoted Dalai Lama’s words, which do not appreciate and encourage homosexuality: “Nature arranged male and female organs "in such a manner that is very suitable... Same-sex organs cannot manage well." But he stopped short of condemning homosexual relationships altogether, saying if two people agree to enter a relationship that is not sexually abusive, "then I dont know. Its difficult to say.” (Quoted in religionfacts.com) In a nutshell, it becomes evident that the foundations of all religions are based upon chastity, kindness, care, sympathy, sacrifice and noble deeds. It is therefore different religious faith share commonalities in the matters which focus upon the welfare and betterment of humanity at large. REFERENCES: 1. Yoseif, Maggid Bin (2010) The test of a renewed Covenant Torah (Retrieved from http://torah-voice.org/Book_of_Mormon_and_renewed_covenant_Torah.htm) 2. The Last Sermon of the Holy Prophet (peace be upon him) (retrieved from http://www.soundvision.com/info/hajj/lastsermon.asp) 3. Understanding a Difficult Verse QUR’AN 4.34: The Feminist Sexual Ethics Project http://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/Pages/adifficultverse.html 4. An introduction to BUDDHISM in Australia (Retrieved from http://www.racismnoway.com.au/classroom/factsheets/25.html) 5. Leviticus 18:22 (Retrieved from http://bible.cc/leviticus/18-22.htm) 6. Islam and Homosexuality (Quoted in http://www.missionislam.com/knowledge/homosexuality.htm) 7. Homosexuality and Buddhism (Retrieved from http://www.religionfacts.com/homosexuality/buddhism.htm) INTERVIEW SCHEDULE PART A 1. Name of the Respondent: ----------------------------------------- 2. Age: ----------------------------------------- 3. Address/Area/Place of work: ----------------------------------------- 4. Education: ----------------------------------------- 5. Marital Status: a) Never married/single: ----------------------------------------- b) Married: ----------------------------------------- c) Divorced: ----------------------------------------- d) Separated: ----------------------------------------- 6. No. of Children: a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) More e) None f) Not applicable 7. Occupation: a) Self-employed: ----------------------------------------- b) Employed: ----------------------------------------- c) Partnership: ----------------------------------------- d) Other: (please describe) ----------------------------------------- 7. Total Monthly Income: a) ≤ £ 300 ----------------------------- b) £ 300---£ 400 --------------------------- c) £ 400---£ 500 --------------------------- d) £ 500---£ 600 --------------------------- e) ≥ £ 600 --------------------------- 8. Total Work Hours per Day: a) 4----6 ----------------------------- b) 6----7 ---------------------------- c) 7----8 --------------------------- d) ≥ 8 --------------------------- 9. Total professional work experience: a) ≤ 3 Years ----------------------------- b) 3---8 Years ----------------------------- c) 8---13 Years ----------------------------- d) 13---18 Years ----------------------------- e) ≥ 18 Years ----------------------------- PART B 10. Religious belief: a) Judaism ----------------------------- b) Christianity ----------------------------- c) Islam ----------------------------- d) Buddhism ----------------------------- e) Jainism ----------------------------- 11. Sect: ------------------------------------ 12. Do you believe in racism ---------------------- 13. Do you consider your religion as the best one in the world ------------ 14. Do you consider your race as superior one --------------- 15. Is there any place of racism in your religion --------------------- 16. Do you think every human is equal according to your religion-------------------17. Your sexual orientation: a) Straight b) Bisexual c) Homosexual 18. Does your religion allow same sex relations 19. Does your religion allow same sex marriage 20) What are the teachings of your religion about homosexuality Read More