Drug and Alcohol Treatment - History and Structure - Research Paper Example

Drug and Alcohol Treatment: History and Structure History The history of alcohol and other drug treatments is considered clear-cut story of progressoralism, negligence, and cruelty, which were overthrown, by scientific learning, medical development, and morality. The previously held belief that an addict wilfully chooses drugs was displaced by a comprehension of ‘diseases’ and ‘mental disorders’ that blind an individual in this choice. However, this historical assumption appears false. Firstly, it ignores the coexistence and pressure of assumptions that accentuate will power, cultural or biological makeup. Although, a particular assumption might have been more eminent and widely accepted at a specific point of time in history; nevertheless, the other competing assumptions never disappeared. Not a single generation has been able to solve the mystery of addiction more than it could solve the affiliated mysteries of connections between mental and physical health, free will, and coercion. Moreover, it is extremely wrong to link criticism and ignorance with will power or compassion. In reality, the truth is much more complex and difficult to grasp. Numerous researches have illustrated the existence of an insistent American folklore related to addiction. In simple words, it says that social influence develops recurring poor choices that compel a drug addict to take more and more drugs. Furthermore, addicts can only discontinue drugs by learning self-control and self-discipline, possibly through treatment. Therefore, the American culture views addicts as unethical yet ill, blameworthy yet innocent, driven by will yet determined(White). As opposed to this, medical science explains drug problems, as “addiction is a disease like hypertension or diabetes”. Thus, we can conclude that addicts are vague and complex individuals for professionals who treat them. This cultural dilemma is depicted throughout the drug treatment history in America. Cultural norms restrict the probable solutions to a plight, and as they are slow to evolve in traditional ways so the imperative problem repeatedly occurs and is largely unsolved. The wide variety of possible remedies to a predicament will be chronically explored by new generations in the hope to gain more insight and find more efficient techniques of interference. History reveals that treatment even encompassed exhortation, compulsion, religious teachings, drugs that are more miraculous, communal help, and dictatorial professional help. The history of treatment in the United States reflects this cultural dilemma. Cultures limit the range of possible responses to a problem, and because they tend to change very slowly in fundamental ways, to the extent that an important problem recurs or remains unsolved, the range of possible responses will be explored repeatedly as new generations search for fresh insights and effective methods of intervention (Ammerman, Ott and Tarter). At various times, treatment has embraced exhortation and coercion, sermons and miracle drugs, democratic mutual aid, and autocratic professional prerogative simultaneously. The Pre-modern Age Modernity has been defined differently in consideration of alcohol and drug usage. For regular alcoholism, the modern age can be traced to the origin of Alcoholics Anonymous or AA back in 1935. However, assigning a specific time periods to drug abuse is more difficult; nonetheless, we can conclude that modern age for drug addiction was characterized by the consumption of methadone or heroine in 1965 and the enforcement of Narcotic Addict Rehabilitation Act (Nara) during 1966. The words of alcoholism and alcoholic can be traced back to mid nineteenth century. However, these were not professionally used until the beginning of the twentieth century; and they did not become a part of vernacular until the swift development of Alcoholics Anonymous in 1935. ‘Inebriety’ and ‘inebriate’ were more widely used during the pre-modern age, but they were mainly used to denote substance abusers(Miller and Carrol). Drunkard was more commonly used. Likewise, the phrase of drug addict did not form a part of vernacular until 1990s. Before this time, regular consumers of drugs were termed as ‘morphinists’, ‘cocainsists’ or ‘dope fiends’. Drug Treatments Drug rehabilitation/rehab includes a wide variety of medical as well as psychotherapeutic treatments that are needed for dependency. The primary focus of these treatments is to assist individuals in refraining from substance abuse, which in turn helps in avoidance of societal, monetary, psychological, and physical repercussions that ensure from extreme abuse. Drug and Alcohol treatment encompass many different treatments that can be used, for instance, detoxification. This helps in coping with abandonment symptoms and therapeutic treatments that are associated with a particular drug that an individual is attempting to discontinue. Probably the toughest part of putting an end to drug consumption is the psychological dependence that results from constant usage. Some programmes that help in countering these problems encompass Alcoholics Anonymous and Narconon. Alcoholics Anonymous Dr. Bob Smith together with Bill Wilson began the ‘AA’ programme. This was based on the standards provided by the Swiss psychiatrist, Carl Jung and the principals established by the Oxford Group. Both of these men were alcohol users facing constant difficulties in discontinuing alchohol (Dick). Moreover, both had been alcoholic for a major part of their lives. They utilized their personal experiences to form self-group assistance. Bill Watson was greatly helped by the spiritual help provided by the Oxford Group. Thereafter, he started sharing his own experience of leaving drugs by ‘finding-G-d’. This is exactly how Dr.Bob Smith recovered, after conversing at length with AA, Bill Smith. Dr. Smith drank for the last time on 10th June 1935. This also marks the starting date of AA. In two years time, forty people recovered with persistent sobriety. The Twelve Steps around which AA revolves were found in 1938. Even though, AA was primarily based on theological concept yet Wilson and Smith also used opinions of numerous early members who were atheists. AA is workable since the ‘Higher-Power’ can take the form of whatever the individual understands. Alcoholics Anonymous was published during 1939. Members of AA were directed to ‘work the programme’ by utilizing the following guideline. 1. Fundamentally resist the first drink, “One is too many and a thousand never enough”. Meetings should be regularly attended and members should participate through conversing or listening. 90 meetings within a span of 90 days are recommended for newcomers in order to help them in breaking the habit and integrating them in the sobriety culture. 3. Patients should frequently contact the sponsor for guidance and assistance in refraining from drugs and for living soberly. In consideration of the brilliant success of Alcoholics Anonymous schemes, the standards were adopted to help cure other addictions and led to the formation of numerous famous groups such as Narcotics Anonymous, Overeaters Anonymous, and Gamblers Anonymous etc. Narconon A new drug rehabilitation programme was started in Feburary, 1966 based on “The fundamentals of Thought” by Ron Hubbard, which was given to substance abusers of in prisons of Arizona. William C.Benitez who was a previously held prisoner in Arizona State Prison charged for narcotics was the one who created Narconon. The organization failed in addressing ‘withdrawal symptoms. Narconon was deemed quite controversial due to the unorthodox techniques, connection with the Church of Scientology and utilization of sweat meetings, consumption of vitamins. It has also been alleged that Narconon has received heavy donations but little treatment and progress has been witnessed. To counter the criticisms in relation to Scientology, Narconon made special materials for people who were under the impression that the Church of Scientology was being advertised. On several occasions, Narconon has endeavoured to start drug-teaching schemes in public schools. For instance, Scientologists belonging from Florida began Narconon drug-education program in the Florida school district. Unfortunately, the school district committee refused to permit students to take part in any drug programmes found on Scientology. In 2005, investigations were carried out and the superintendent of schools contended that Narconon programmes should be explicitly rejected as the findings revealed that the Narconon Program imparted unscientific and incorrect teachings. On the other hand, celebrities like John Travolta and Kristie Alley have proclaimed that the programme proved beneficial for them. Detoxification and rehabilitation stages were the foundation stone of Narconon or the “New Life Programme”. These encompass a range of vitamins, multi-minerals, and oils with special focus on the consumption of magnesium, calcium, and niacin. Exercise and long meetings also form a part of the program. Patients almost spent three to four months on average in Narconon Centres for a cost ranging from $10,000 to $30,000. Other Programmes Programs for substance abusers are not limited to AA or Narconon. However, other programmes are based on the standards of Alcoholics Anonymous. Integrative therapies are ranked as the most successful and effective treatment programs. This involves using several discrete kinds of therapies all in one program. It is imperative to realise that addiction influences every aspect of an individual; thereby, all spheres need addressing and treatment. Psychotherapeutic treatments comprising of psychotherapy or family therapy are based on the analysis and findings of numerous psychologists and psychiatrists who undertook research and experiments with the stated programmes in mind, Freud, Jung and Adler are counted amongst these researchers. If we review the chronicles of history, we will realise that drug consumption and associated problems have existed since the beginning of time. What is interesting is that drug rehabilitation might have developed with the passage of time but it existed as long as drugs did. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Together with the above treatments, psychotherapy can also be advantageous for a drug user. Research has established that cognitive behavioural therapy, motivation enhancement therapy, social therapy, marital therapy proves helpful in curing substance abusers(Lowinson). Community reinforcement approach is ranked as one of the most successful cognitive behavioural therapies to encourage discontinuance of drugs and alcohol. This technique involves focusing on the factors that can be controlled by an individual, who also has the power to restructure them to live soberly. The treatment is not only clinically proven but also cost effective. A study revealed that when community reinforcement was used in conjunction with Antabuse, which is a medication that helps in refraining from alcohol, 97% of patients were triumphantly discontinue drugs even after the passing of six months after treatment. As opposed to this, only 45 of the participants of the 12-step scheme who were also provided disulfiram managed to recover. A variety of medications has proved effective in curing substance abusers. For instance, antidepressant assists in counteracting alcohol and cocaine usage. Similarly medications such as levo-alpha-acetylmethadol (LAAM), buprenorphine (Buprenex, Suboxone), and naltrexone (ReVia) help in diminishing heroin consumption. Conditional Model Conditional drug responses happen when drugs are recurrently connected with a particular stimulus. After some time, similar effects from drug consumption can only be produced by the stimulus. This pattern applies to caffeine, regular coffee drinkers who feel alert even by smelling coffee. On the other hand, consistent drug consumption can lead to the development of a compensatory response. In this state, the body counterbalances the effects. For instance, if a drug is supposed to relieve pain, then the compensatory reaction will be the one that will evoke more pain in him. Compensatory reaction is utilized to return the body to homeostasis. When drugs are repeatedly paired with stimulus, a compensatory reaction sets off that deals with the influence of drugs; thus, helping in drug forbearance. In case the stimulus is not present at the time of consuming drugs, then the user is prone to overdosing himself, as there exists no stimulus to bring forth the compensatory reaction to balance out the drug’s effects. Conditioning Model is based on this principal. Biological Model Hereditary and genetics play an integral role in the reaction of the body to alcohol. This model revolves around the receptor concept. Langley condemned the dominant hypothesis and conceived the ‘receptive substance’ theory in 1905. He stated that a receptive material on our skeletal muscle mediates the effects of a drug. The theory also delineated that the receptive substances were dissimilar in various species. Later down the road, the receptor-mediated action gained popularity when Ahlquist demonstrated the differential effects of adrenaline on two difference receptor populations. References Ammerman, Robert T., Peggy J. Ott and Ralph E. Tarter. Prevention and Societal Impact of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associatess,Inc., 2009. B., Dick. God and Alcoholism: Our Growing Opportunity in the 21st Century. New York: Paradise Research Publications, 2002. Lowinson, Joyce H. Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. Philadelphia: LippinCott Williams and Wilkins, 2005. Miller, William R. and Kathleen M. Carrol. Rethinking Substance Abuse: What the Science Shows, and What We Should Do about It. New York: The Guilford Press, 2006. White, William L. Slaying the dragon: the history of addiction treatment and recovery in America. Illinois: Chestnut Health Systems, 1998. Read More