Psychology and Physiology Of Substance Abuse - Essay Example

Psyc & Phys of Sub Abuse People have been drinking alcohol since prior to history and people have battered alcohol for approximately as long. In early civilization and contemporary civilization alcohol in temperance was ignored but alcohol abuse and drunkenness was condemned. Alcohol consumption reached a peak in United States during the first three decades in the 19th century. Currently the alcohol utilization is the United States is going down between all ethic and age group. Adults from the age of 21-39 drink more than other age groups and undergraduates are more liable to be drinkers than lofty school failures who on the other hand are more likely to be serious drinkers. Effects of Alcohol In the body two enzymes turn the alcohol into vinegar or acetic acid. The first enzyme is known as alcohol dehydrogenase and is situated in the liver and has no other known function apart from metabolizing alcohol. Alcohol dehyderogenase coverts aldehyde into acetic acid. The process of metabolizing alcohol produces at least three health related outcomes: 1. An increase in lactic acid, which links with apprehension attacks. 2. A raise in uric acid, which causes gout 3. A boost of fat in the liver and lungs. The particular alcohol used in beverages is known as ethanol. Like other alcohols ethanol is also poisonous. Drinking alcohol does not equally affect men and women. One factor is body weight. Women are more strongly affected by alcohol for the reason of differences in absorption of alcohol in the blood (Frezza et al, 1990) and these distinctions may make females more helpless to the effects of alcohol regardless of the body weight. Amongst other tribulations connected with drinking is alcohol’s ability to create tolerance, reliance, withdrawal and dependence. Tolerance is the word related to effects of a drug when with constant use, a large amount of the drug is entailed to create the same outcome. Drugs with elevated tolerance potential are hazardous because people who build up tolerance need to take more of the drug to generate the result they want and expect. If this amount is progressively larger any dangerous effects or side effects of the drug becomes more of a hazard. Alcohol is a drug with generally moderate tolerance potential but it seems to affect people differently. For some heavy use of alcohol for an extended period is required before noticeable tolerance begins to develop. For others tolerance can develop within a week of moderate daily consumption. With in increase risk of physical damage that alcohol can cause. Dependence and reliance are separate from tolerance and it also can be related to many drugs. Dependence occurs when the drug becomes so integrated into the working of the body’s cells that it becomes essential for normal functioning. If the drug is ceased the body’s reliance on that drug becomes obvious and withdrawal indications expand. These symptoms are the body’s signs that it is adjusting to functioning without the drug. Dependence and withdrawal are physically resolute and are apparent in physical systems. Generally withdrawal symptoms are the opposite of the drugs affects because alcohol is a depressant withdrawal from it produces symptoms of restlessness, irritability and agitation. The amalgamation of withdrawal and dependence is frequently explained as addiction, addictive drugs are those which create dependence and when constant result in withdrawal. Many drugs create disreputably disagreeable withdrawal, and alcohol is one of the worst. In those severely addicted delirium tremens occurs with hallucinations and disorientation. Conclusions may also occur during withdrawal a process that usually lasts between 2 days and a week. The physical hazards are so harsh that the procedure is often finished in a special facility dedicated to alcohol treatment. Tolerance and dependence are independent properties, a drug may produce tolerance but not dependence also a person can develop dependence on a drug that has little or no tolerance potential. In addition some drugs have both tolerance and dependence potential. Some research (Zinberg, 1984) even indicates that tolerance and dependence are not inevitable consequences of taking drugs. Not everybody who drinks alcohol does so with adequate regularity and in adequate amount to expand a tolerance and most drinkers do not become dependent. Some people speak of psychological dependence but this term has little scientific meaning. Alcohol produces an assortment of dangers both direct and indirect. Direct hazards are damaging physical effects due to alcohol itself, exclusive of any psychological social or economic penalty. Indirect hazards comprise of harmful consequences that effect from psychological and physiological impairments created by alcohol. Direct Hazards: Although alcohol affects almost every organ system in the body, liver damage is the main health consideration for long term, heavy drinkers. With heavy drinking (more than five six drinks a day), fat accumulates in the liver, resulting in its enlargement. If this level of drinking continues blood flow through the liver becomes blocked, liver cells die, and a form of hepatitis develops. The next stage is cirrhosis the accumulation of nonfunctional scar tissue in the liver. Cirrhosis an irreversible condition is a major cause of death among alcoholics yet not all alcoholics develop it. Moreover people with no history of alcohol abuse may also develop liver cirrhosis (Gordon & Kannel, 1984) but cirrhosis is significantly associated with heavy alcohol use (Klastsky & Armstrong, 1992) and is one of the leading causes of death in the United States. Chronic alcohol abuse is also a factor in developing several others disorder, including respiratory illness and severe neurological damage. Critically ill respiratory patients who are also chronic alcohol abusers have a much higher death rate than respiratory patients with no history of alcohol abuse. Prolonged heavy drinking is also implicated in the development of a neurological dysfunction known as Korsakoff syndrome (also known as ‘Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome’). Korsakoff syndrome is characterized by chronic cognitive impairment severe memory problems for recent events, disorientation and an inability to learn new information. Heavy drinkers can experience thiamin deficiency, which is worsened by their poor nutrition. Alcohol accelerates the progression of thiamin-related brain damage and when this process has started vitamin supplements do not reverse the progression. Moreover most alcoholics do not receive treatment until the process is at an irreversible stage. Although heavy prolonged drinking is a risk factor for Karsakoff syndrome light to moderate consumption does not seem to lead to cognitive impairment. Some researches even suggest that older women may benefit cognitively from some daily intake of alcohol. Several studies (Herbert et al, 1993) have found that low moderate alcohol consumption among older people has no detrimental recall word fluency, and memory for faces. Prolonged drinking seems to be implicated in cancer of the liver esophagus nasopharynx and larynx (Driver & a Swann, 1987). Alcohol presents some risk for breast cancer in females. Omen consuming two to five glasses every day of any alcoholic beverage had a relative risk for breast cancer of about 1.4. The analysis revealed no additional risk for women who drank more heavily probably because the number of women who consume more than five drinks day and who also develops breast cancer is not sufficient to detect added risks. Alcohol also affects the cardiovascular system but the effects may not all be negative. Heavy chronic drinking however does have a direct and harmful effect on the cardiovascular system. In large doses alcohol reduces oxidation of fatty acids in the myocardium. The heart directly metabolizes ethanol producing fatty acid ethyl esters that impair functioning of the energy producing structure of the heart. Alcohol can also depress the myocardium ability to contract, which can lead to abnormal cardiac functioning. In addition alcohol consumption is related to increased systolic blood pressure especially among African American males and females although this association maybe due to the high levels of stress that contribute both to alcohol consumption and to increased blood pressure. Alcohol has direct and hazardous effect on pregnancy ant the developing fetus in two basic ways. First very heavy alcohol consumption reduces fertility. Several possible reasons exist for infertility in females who are chronic heavy users of alcohol. Excessive alcohol consumption produces amneorthea, cessation of the menstrual cycle, which may be caused either by cirrhosis or the hypothalamus. Another possible reason for infertility is vitamin deficiency especially a lack of thiamin (Greenwood et al, 1983). The second direct hazardous effect of excessive drinking during pregnancy is that it increases the risk of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). It affects many infants of mothers who drank excessively during pregnancy. This syndrome includes specific facial abnormalities, growth deficiencies, central nervous system disorders and mental retardation. Moderate drinking is not likely to cause fetal alcohol syndrome but significant decreases in cognitive functioning have been observed in children of mother who drank three or more drinks per day during pregnancy (Larroque et al, 1995). Slightly less alcohol consumption by pregnant mothers can lead to other health problems for the child. For example children born to women who average two drinks a day have a lower average birth weight and his condition although not itself a danger related to many risks for newborns. Women who drink as little as four drinks a week show an increased risk of spontaneous abortion. Children of women who drank moderately during pregnancy showed somewhat slower reaction times and grater distractibility. Indirect Hazards: In addition to these direct physiological damages alcohol consumption is associated with several indirect hazards. Most of the indirect dangers arise from alcohols effects on aggression judgment and attention. Alcohol also affects coordination and alters cognitive functioning in ways that contribute to increased chances of unintentional injury not only to the drinker (Rivara et al, 1997). The most frequent and serious indirect hazard of alcohol consumption is the increased likelihood of unintentional injuries the fifth leading cause of death in the United States and leading cause of death for people under age 45. A dose response relationship exists between alcohol consumption and unintentional fatal injuries that is greater the number of drinks consumed per occasion the grater the incidence of fatalities from unintentional injuries. People who consume five or more drinks per occasion and people who consume nine or more drinks or more drinks are more than three times as likely to die from injuries. Alcohol consumption can also lead to more aggressive behavior for some drinkers. Both laboratory experiments and crime statistics have shown relationships between alcohol and aggression. A review of laboratory studies (Taylor & Leonard, 1983) concluded that moderate and high doses of drinkers of alcohol produce aggression in about 30% of drinkers. In addition people exposed to others who urge aggression as opposed to straint are more likely to act aggressively. Aggression therefore is not an inevitable or simple consequence of the pharmacological effects of alcohol but rather a response that may occur in certain situations and with certain individuals. Similarly alcohol may increase crime at least in some cases. Bibliography Frezza M, di Padova, C. Pozzato, G, Terpin M, Baraona and Liebar C. S (1990) High Blood Alcohol Levels in Women: The role of Decreased Gastric Alcohol Dehydrogenase Activity and First Pass Metabolism New England Journal of Medicine 322, 95-99. Zinberg N. E (1984) Drug Set and Setting: The Basis for Controlled Intoxicant Use New Haven CT. Gordon T & Kannel W B (1984) Drinking and Mortality, The Framingham Study American Journal of Epidemiology 120, 97-107. Klastsky A & Armstrong M (1992) Alcohol Smoking Coffee and Cirrhosis American Journal of Epidemiology 136, 1248-1257. Herbert T. B & Cohen (1993) Depression and Immunity, A Meta Analytical Review Psychological Bulletin 217, 1392 Driver & Swan P.F (1987) Alcohol and Human Cancer Review, Anticancer Research 309-320. Green wood, Lover E.R & Pratt O.E (1983) The Effects of Alcohol or of Thiamine Deficiency upon Reproduction in Female Rat and Fetal Development Alcohol and Alcoholism 45-51. Larroque B, Kaminiski, Dehaene, Subtil, Delfosse & Querleu (1995) Moderate Prenatal Alcohol Exposure and Psychomotor Development at Preschool Age American Journal of Public Health 85. Rivera, Mueller, Somes, Mendoza, Rushforth & Kellermann (1997) Alcohol and Illicit Drug Abuse and the Risk of Violent Death in the Home Journal of American Medical Association 278. Taylor & Leonard (1983) Alcohol and Human Physical Aggression Aggression: Theoretical and Empirical Reviews 77-101 Volume 2 Word count: 1,807 Read More