How To Analyze Psychological Disorders - Essay Example

Analyzing Psychological Disorders of paper, semester, (Teacher’s December 4, Introduction Analyzing psychological disorders has been mostly difficult for medical science and the field of psychology because there is no single theoretical reference by which all the disorders can be understood. Biological perspective would analyze the presence of a disorder in terms of its biological influences which includes neurological influences, brain functioning or damage, gene or chromosomal influences or heredity. Behavioural perspective would analyze the disorders; in contrast, in terms of the person’s influence to external stimuli that cause the disorder. They assert that all disorders stems primarily form learning or conditioning. The major debate that comes out of these two schools is called the ‘Nature v/s Nurture’ issue. In this work, however, I am going to take the stand of biopsychological perspective which attributes biological, psychological and social causes all to be responsible for disorders. In Part A, Schizophrenia will be analyzed in biopsychological perspective. The symptoms, causal factors and drug therapies for the disorder will also be discussed. In Part B, two other disorders, Anorexia and Anxiety will be analyzed again with the aid of biopsychological perspective and other discussions regarding their relevance to the nature-nurture issue and their treatments. Part A (Schizophrenia) While studying the symptoms of Schizophrenia, various researches have found significant difference in the structure of the brain affected by the disorder. Foremost, problems have been found in structural connectivity in the effected brains. The fluid-filled sacs that surround the brain called lateral ventricles were seen enlarged in brains with Schizophrenia. The volume of the brain is reduced and the cerebral cortex is smaller often times (Cazaban, 2003). The blood flow in frontal regions is lower and the temporal lobe is smaller. The hippocampus, amygdala and limbic system are also found to be smaller by certain researches (Cazaban, 2003). The major part of the brain affected by this disorder is the prefrontal cortex which is associated with memory that results in the disordered though. A major causal factor of Schizophrenia is described to be genetic. A number of recent studies have confirmed that this disorder can be genetically transferred. There is a strong association between the closeness of the blood relationship (i.e. level of gene sharing or consanguinity) and the risk for the disorder (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007 p.501). Several other twin-studies conducted also confirm that people are genetically vulnerable to have this disorder. Prenatal exposures such as “viral infection, rhesus incompatibility, early nutritional deficiency, and prenatal birth complications” (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007, p. 507) were also found to be the causes of Schizophrenia. Imbalances in Dopamine which plays the role of transmitting impulses of brain is sometimes also considered as one of the causes. This disconnection of neurotransmitters is important in understanding this disorder. The basic abnormality that occurs in brains affected by Schizophrenia is that there are abnormal releases of neurotransmitters between neurons that cause bizarre behaviors. Major roles are played by neurotransmitters such as dopamine and serotonin in causing the symptoms (Cazaban, 2003) as already discussed. Many researches now agree that schizophrenia is a ‘neurodevelopmenatal’ disorder which suggests that a brain lesion that occurs early in development lies dormant until normal maturation of the brain shows up the problems that result from the lesion (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007, p. 509). A Schizophrenic demonstrates various traits or symptoms. The first among them is the presence of ‘delusion’ which has been defined as “an erroneous belief that is fixed and firmly held despite clear contradictory evidence” (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007, p. 493). An example would be the patient’s odd believe that his thoughts are controlled by an external agency. Hallucination, which is seeing, hearing or feeling things in the absence of any external perceptual stimulus, is also a major symptom of schizophrenia. Among other important signs of this disorder are disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior or ‘negative symptoms’ which is an absence or deficit of behaviours that are normally present (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007) in contrast to positive symptoms which means the presence in excess what is constued as normal. Hallucinations can occur in any form such as auditory, visual, olfactory, tactile or gustatory and they have relevance for the patient at some affective, conceptual, or behavioral level (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007, p. 493). Disorganized speech comes mostly as a result of disorganized thoughts that the patient is having. The patient fails to make sense in what he is saying although in appearance, it seems as though he is sure of what he is saying. The disorganized behaviour also occur as a result of disruption in any goal-directed activity such as work, relationships, self care and so forth. In brief P. F Liddle (1987) summarizes the symptoms to be segregated into three symdromes: psychomotor poverty, disorganisation and reality distortion. The pharmacological approaches for the medication of the disorder suggests the use of first-generation antipsycholtics such as chlorpromazine and haloperidol which is regarded as one of the major medical advances in science. Evidences suggest the positive impact of the use of anoher set of antipsychotics called the ‘second-generation antipsychotics’ such as clozapine, risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine and ziprasidone (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007, p. 523). Many of the second-generation antipsychotics are believed to offer advantages over first-generation agents in the treatments for schizophrenia (Miyamoto, Duncan, Marx, & Lieberman, 2005) and they are also considered very effective in elimanating both the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. It is thought that “second-generation antipsychotics work by blocking a much broader range of receptors than first-generation antipsychotics” (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007, p. 525). They have therefore been tremendrously beneficial to many patients with schizophrenia. However, “the pharmacological properties that confer the different therapeutic effects of the new generation of antipsychotic drugs have remained elusive, and certain side effects can still impact patient’s health and quality of life” (Miyamoto, Duncan, Marx, & Lieberman, 2005). Part B (Biopsychologist Perspective of Case Studies) The biopsychological model posits that an illness or disorder can not be effectively understood by the aid of one particular reductionist model such as the biomedical model which only considers biological deviation or injury to be the cause. In contrast, biopsychological perpective considers biological, psychological and social factors to be all responsible for the disorder. I shall take two case studies of Anaroxia and Anxiety (presented in Appendix) for analysing them in terms of biopsychological perspective. The first case under my observation is about a girl, Beth, who suffers from Anaroxia. Her false perception of being overweight is a psychological problem because she repeatedly suffers from a psychological misconception that she is overweight no matter how thin she actually is. This overwhelming anxiety towards being overweight comes from social influences of media and modern style of living where having ‘size-zero’ figure or being thin is considered ideal. Her avoidance of food also comes from a perceived psychological need to become thin. This behaviour, however, causes seroius biological problems of health which is not suprising. She has already missed many menstrual cycles, which is a biological repercussion of her psychological problem, which further stems from social causes. Therefore, Beth’s problem constantly moves in a never-ending vicious circle of social, psychological and biological problems. The Nature-Nurture debate of psychology plays importantly role in understanding this case. Those who support nature’s role for the disorder posit that the problem is primarily biological, that Beth is biologically predisposed to behave in this manner, by genetic influence or effects of the brain functioning. The ‘Nurture’ school would contradict by saying that Beth has learnt such behaviour by social or environmental influences and by the overwhelming pressure of the current trend of size-zero or being fashionably thin. However, biopsychological perspective insists that biological, social or psychological causes have all influenced Beth’s condition. Lacey and Crisp (1980) found positive impact of the use of Clomipramine on patients which is a drug associated with increased hunger, appetite and engergy intake. Use of other drugs as tretment are generally not experimented as of now and the treatment includes mostly diet management and nutritional therapy and and counseling (Smith, Jaffe-Gill, Segal, & Segal, 2010). Another case is of Tom, the engineer who suffers from anxiety. Firstly the problem is psychologcial because his anxiety stems from falsely perceived problems of his job responsibilities, money probems or health issues which could otherwise be easily stablized by time-management. This psychological problem has repercussion in the form of biological problems. Muscle tension, headaches and hot flashes, feeling nauseated and fatigued are all biological symptoms of his anxiety. This perceived anxiety actually effects his job by not being able to concentrate and contribute effectively. This problem, will have further social problems at home and office. Moreover, the social problem of over-time work, increased official and home responsibility and pressures would have caused his anxiety in the first place. Supporter of ‘Nature’ philosophy would understand Tom’s problem to be biological, i.e neurological, genetic or brain-functioning plays role in his anxiety. He is biologically predisposed, in his nature, to be anxious or certain brain-functioning or damage would have caused it. In contrast, ‘Nurture’ philosophy attributes the cause to be environmental. Tom has learnt to be anxious by various external influences such as work-load or his inability to handle responsibility. However, biopsychological perspective includes biological, psychological and social influences to be all responsible for Tom’s anxiety. For treatment of anxiety, medicines from the benzodiazephine category such as Valium is used for tension relief and so forth, but they can be addictive. A newer medication known as buspirone and other antidepressants are also effective in the treatment and they have a greater effect on the psychological symptoms than do the benzodiazephines (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007, p. 210). Cognitive-behavrioural therapy has become increasingly effective for its treament which includes “a combination of behavioral techniques such as training in applied muscle relaxation, and cognitive-restructuring techniques amimed at reducing distorted cognitions and information-processng biases associated with GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)” (Carson, Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007, p. 211). Conclusion Althought the biopsychologcial perspective is not much dealt with in the field of psychology it plays a very important role in analyzing and understanding different disorders. It seems highly important that a disorder should be understood in all terms or with the aid of all perspectives which would untimately give an over-all picture of all the possible influences that could have led the existance of the disorder. Schizophrenia is mostly found to be a neurobiological disorder and the social or psychological causes that could have led to the disorder is not much studied. The other two disorders (aneroxia and anxiety) under our observation, however, have been studied for its biological, social and psychological influences and hence have been appropriated by the field of biopsychology. References Anorexia Nervosa: Symptoms. (2006, November 17). Retrieved November 21, 2006, from PsychCentralA website: http://psychcentral.com/disorders/sx2.htm Carson, R. C., Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. M. (2007). Abnormal Psychology. Delhi: Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd. Cazaban, A. (2003, April 26). The Effects of Schizophrenia on the Brain. Retrieved December 2, 2010, from Serendip web site: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro03/web2/acazaban.html Hauser, J. (2005, February 2). Anxiety: Generalized Anxiety Disorder. Retrieved November 21, 2010, from PsychCentralA website: http://psychcentral.com/disorders/anxiety/gad.html Lacey, J. H., & Crisp, A. H. (1980). Hunger, Food Intake and Weight: the Impact of Clomipramine on a Refeeding Anorexia Nervosa Population. Postgrad Medical Journal , 79-85. Liddle, P. F. (1987). The symptoms of Chronic Schizophrenia. A re-examination of the positive-negative dichotomy. The Bitish Journal of Psychiatry , 151, 145-151. Miyamoto, S., Duncan, G. E., Marx, C. E., & Lieberman, J. A. (2005). Treatments for schizophrenia: a critical review of pharmacology and mechanisms of action of antipsychotic drugs. Molecular Psychiatry , 10, 79-104. Smith, M., Jaffe-Gill, E., Segal, R., & Segal, J. (2010, June 9). Anorexia Nervosa. Retrieved December 4, 2010, from Helpguide website: http://helpguide.org/mental/anorexia_signs_symptoms_causes_treatment.htm Appendix Anorexia  Beth is a normal child raised in a well-balanced home by caring parents. As a teenager, she began to experience an overwhelming fear of gaining weight and becoming fat. Her fear was unfounded because Beth’s weight was normal for her height and age. Beth began to diet and lose weight, but regardless of how much she weighed, she had a very poor self-image. Beth has become dangerously thin, but she denies the seriousness of her condition. Regardless of how much weight she loses, she feels like she needs to lose more. Beth has missed several menstrual cycles and continues to severely restrict her food intake. Her weight continues to drop. Beths mother and father are deeply concerned, but they do not know how to help their daughter (PsychCentral®, 2006).  Drug Abuse  Ron is a 33-year-old man who has been in and out of the court/jail system for the last several years. He started drinking as a teenager but his alcohol abuse began to be a serious problem in his late 20s. Ron has several DUI’s (driving under the influence) and has been arrested several times, but he seems unable to control his drinking. To his credit, he admits that he is an alcoholic. Ron has been through a variety of inpatient treatment facilities for his alcoholism, but after a brief time of sobriety, he has always relapsed back into his daily abuse of alcohol. His wife is concerned about him, but she does not know what to do for her husband.  Anxiety  Tom is an engineer, he is happily married, and he is the father of three bright, healthy children. By all appearances, his life is stable and satisfying. Tom, however, suffers from continual worry that he has a difficult time turning off. His anxiety may center on anything from his perceived health problems (he has recently been to his doctor for a physical, but no health issues were discovered) to money and job responsibilities. At times his anxiety peaks to the point that it interferes with his ability to function on the job. Physical symptoms include muscle tension, headaches, and hot flashes that often accompany Tom’s anxiety. Tom often feels nauseated, and he becomes easily fatigued. When he feels anxious, Tom has difficulty concentrating, he becomes irritable, and he has difficulty falling asleep at night. All of these symptoms have been present for the last 6 months. Tom has tried to talk himself out of his anxiety, but this has not worked for him. Toms wife is supportive, but she does not know what to do for her husband (Hauser, 2005).  Insomnia  Mary is a single mother of one child. She has had difficulty sleeping for the last month. Her lack of sleep has caused her to be fatigued during the day, which has caused significant impairment in her professional and social life. Mary has no history of mental disorders (such as depression) nor is she on any kind of prescription medication. Mary does not drink alcohol and does not take any type of street drug. Mary has been to her doctor about this problem, but he has been reluctant to give her any kind of sleep medication for her insomnia because he is concerned about her becoming overly dependant on the medication. Mary is facing yet another night with little sleep.  Read More