What Is Suicide According to Retterstol Social reaction to Suicide - Essay Example

?Suicide Retterstol (1993 p argues that suicide is somewhat the most personal act that any individual can perform. Few of these acts have deep roots in human and social conditions, or have great consequences. He notes that no other act on earth has such great consequences for oneself. In this regard, he suggests that suicide affects the person who takes his life, and subsequently affects the individual’s immediate circle, local community as well as the wider community (Joiner 2007 p.13-24). The subject is of interest to divergent categories such as psychologists, doctors, social workers, sociologists, nurses, clergymen, lawyers, the police, teachers, writers, politicians as well as philosophers. It is also of interest to ordinary citizens who get affected when an individual takes his life. At one time or the other, people have heard of an individual who has committed or attempted suicide. This may be through the media, or family member or a relative. It may be expected that an individual at difficult and intolerable moments in their lives may find it prudent to commit suicide (Retterstol 1993 p.1). Suicidal thoughts, attempts and threats are common human phenomenon and happen across all cultures. It is thus a human phenomenon and does not take place among animals. Retterstol (1993 p.1) notes that in Norway, about 650 people die annually through suicide according to a statistic from Central Bureau of Statistics. He also notes that this is just an estimate since some other suicidal deaths pass unrecorded due to uncertainty regarding cause of death. The national Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) also reports that in 2000, suicide ranked eleventh leading cause of deaths in America, and ranks third leading cause of for persons aged between 15 and 24 years (Joiner& Rudd, 2002). The report also reveals that about 10.6 for every 100,000 people in America and Canada die because of suicide (Joiner& Rudd, 2002). In the United States alone, the report reveals that over 30,000 people die of suicide annually, which translates to about 86 persons daily, with about 1900 persons attempting suicide. Suicide is thus the act of killing oneself with intent. Retterstol (1993 p.2) define attempted suicide as a conscious and voluntary act which an individual has undertaken with intent of injuring himself and which the person had no intention of surviving the act, but the attempt and injury has not led to intended death. It is the self-initiated, life-threatening act, which fails to result into death (Marcus 1996 p6-19). It is argued that a majority of people do not chose do die by committing suicide. Instead, it happens when pain exceeds the resources available to manage the pain. A number of causes have been identified which include mental disorders resulting from bipolar, unipolar, drug abuse, alcoholism and schizophrenia. Other people take their lives due to financial problems and problems resulting from interpersonal relations. This definition implies that suicide is intentional and done out of free will, which coroners believe as opposed to the deceased intention. This paper will discuss the statement that suicide is more a matter of what the coroner thinks than what the dead person intended in cultural perspective. Durkheim and Simption (1951 p15) note that an individual’s life is in most cases governed by customs and habits and this is why he calls suicide altruistic since it results from the fact that an individual takes his life because of higher commandments, which may be religious scarifies, or political allegiance. This type of suicide Durkheim and Simption argue still exist in the modern society. They also suggest that altruistic and egoistic suicide is symptomic in a way in which a person is structured in the society: that is whether adequately or inadequately. Durkheim and Simption however, point out another form of suicide, which result from lack of regulations of a person in the society (Durkheim 2006 p.26-44). This they call anomic suicide, which they note, is a chronic state in the economy. The needs of the individuals and the satisfaction are thus regulated by the society. In this case, the individual’s common belief and practices make the individual embodiment known as collective conscience as Durkheim calls it (Durkheim 2006 p.26-44). He argues that when this regulation is upset so that their horizon is widened beyond what one cannot endure, then nomanic suicide moves to the maximum. Durkheim and Simption (1951 p. 15) argue that sudden wealth may lead to suicide due to the fact that newly enriched people are unable to cope with new opportunities that befalls them. They notes that here both the upper and lower limits of the individual needs and scale of life are upset. Such a situation also occurs in case of a divorce. With regard to divorce, Durkheim and Simption argue that here married couples fails to exercise its regulative influence with regard to his or her partner. This they say is the reason behind high rate of suicide among divorced couples. However, in social context, Durkheim believed that inclination is a reality on its own, exterior of the person and exerts a coercive force upon the individual. In this context, Durkheim implied that a person’s inclination to suicide is something explicable scientifically with regard to collective inclination (Durkheim 2006 p.26-44). Thus the same collective inclination is by itself a determined reflection of the society’s structure in which the person lives. The aggregate point here is that, the sum of individual’s view is less important to individual views on life. It is thus an existence in itself; this Durkheim called collective conscience, the explicit beliefs and practices, of the folkways. Durkheim and Simption argue that, it is the common repository sentiments and a wellspring where an individual draws his moral sustenance (Durkheim 2006 p.66-64). Durkheim and Simption note that under western culture where suicide is condemned, the suicide rates are low as opposed to under cultures where the act is accepted. For Durkheim, suicide just like crime has no indication for morality in entirety. Durkheim and Simption (1951 p.16) note that quite a good number of suicides are to be expected in certain societies. However, where suicide rate increases rapidly, implies a symptomatic breakdown of an individual’s collective conscience and the basic flow of social fabric (Baudelot and Establet 2008 p.24-33). Different cultures thus hold different views with regard to suicide. For instance, with regard to western culture, suicide is seen as an act of desperation when all fails. Retterstol (1993 p.6) notes that in some cultures, suicide is viewed as a means of search for help. He notes that attempted suicide has been used in some parts of the word as a means of communication with the world around them. This means that the intention of the dead in this case in inconsequential. Retterstol argue that suicidal behaviors are used to indicate to the person’s immediate circle that he is distressed and therefore needs assistance. For other cultures, it is a means of aggression, and is a way of punishing their immediate family (Baudelot and Establet 2008 p.24-56). This is common with marital problems in which an individual would commit or attempt suicide to resolve the problem. Many such cases have been reported in the US and Canada in the past where couples threaten attempted suicide as a search for answer to the problem at hand. In some incidences, suicide has been used as a way of self-punishment (Lester 2008). This has mainly been witnessed when an individual is guilty of an offence and tries to escape from the wrath of condemnation or from prosecution. This scenario has been witnessed in many parts of the world. Cannon (2008) notes that Conrad Jarret a teenage happened to commit suicide after being overwhelmed by the guilt related to his brother’s death. He therefore found it prudent to attempt suicide as a means of punishing himself for his act of killing his brother. In fact, many such incidences have happened across the world where for instance, a man murders his wife and then commits suicide later. This is seen as an act of desperation when all seem to have failed with regard to the western cultural view. Under western culture, suicide is also seen as an act of revenge when all avenues to solve the problem seem to have failed. For instance, in the US, many suicide cases have been reported in which an individual has offered to take his life as an act of revenge. This is also common in China. According to Retterstol (1993 p.11), in China, under some circumstances, suicide is used as an act of revenge against someone who has done wrong against another. In this case, the Chinese people believed that the deed would then be sent to the other person, and an individual’s soul could pursue the adversary better than a person could as a living person. This is an indication that what the society believed is of the act is what mattered and not the intent of the dead. It has also been seen that suicidal tendencies also differ with sexes in western cultures. For instance, a report shows that there are many incidences of suicidal tendencies among the homosexuals as opposed to the heterosexuals. This is based on the different views that the society hold with regard to homosexuals (Joiner and Rudd 2002 p.112-148). For example according to the western culture, the society has not embraced the culture of homosexuality despite the US efforts to legalize the act. Therefore, individuals who practice this act, in most cases, are stigmatized thus affecting their psychology leading to suicide. This is supported by Dorais and Ajeunesse (2004 p.18) when he argues that, under situations of stigma, the individual may think that his stigmatized attributes are evident and are known to everyone. In this case, Dorais and Ajeunesse (2004 p.18) note that the individual would be ignominious, with regard to self-perception. It is under this category that Goffman puts homosexuals. For instance, Dorais and Ajeunesse (2004 p.23) reveal that young men who are homosexuals, tend to experience both moral harassment and ostracism. In this case, those who are not so identified as homosexuals but are aware of their desires with regard to their homosexuality, being perceived as homosexuals is a big threat since gay adolescents lacks respects and protection (Lester 2008). Therefore, a study showed that their attempting suicide is related to their sexual orientation and other related identification to ostracism and the wrong belief that homosexuality and happiness were compatible. According to Hinduism, on the Eastern region, there is no negative view about suicide as is the case within the western culture. According to their religious teachings in the old books of Veda, suicide is permitted. The teachings say that the best sacrifice that an Indian faithful can make is his life (Holmes and Holmes 2005 p.24-66). This means that irrespective of the intentions of the dead, Hinduism believes that the person who has committed suicide has just made a sacrifice. The Holy Scriptures of the Upanishads on the other hand view suicide on the different perspective and condemns it. According to one of the Holy Scriptures, an individual who commits suicide will enter the sunless areas covered by darkness after he or she has died. Retterstol (1993 p6) notes that in Hinduism sati or suttee implying widow burning was acceptable, institutionalized until modern times. According to Retterstol (1993 p.3), it has been common practice within the Hindu religion that suicidal deaths mark a definite route to salvation for the widow. According to the religion, the soul survives as the body perishes. This therefore implies that the motive of whoever committed suicide did not matter to the community since they viewed it on cultural grounds. Buddhist’s view with regard to suicide also differs with the intent of the dead person who has committed suicide. Buddhism sees suicide to be correct under certain circumstances, which is consistent with the intention of human life according to the religious teachings. The Buddhist culture just like the case with Hinduism argues that the best scarifies that an individual can offer is his own body (Lester 2008). The culture holds that it is better to provide one’s body than to give alms. It also holds that it is better to burn one’s body than to light the shrine’s lamp. This implies that, according to their teaching, the intent of the dead does not matter as they view it on cultural ground (Retterstol 1993 p.11). Despite the cultures views of suicide, the general attitude towards suicide is negative. Retterstol (1993 p.11) argues that according to the Buddhist, human life is one of stress and suffering. Therefore, it is the responsibility of man to withstand his stress and suffering. Many Buddhists argue that it is not easy for an individual who has taken his life to free himself from such stress and suffering. In fact, under the confusian doctrine, a person should not destroy his body; leave a lone the hair or the skin, since it is given by the ancestors (Holmes and Holmes 2005 p.24-66). This doctrine therefore puts many restrictions on individuals against self-destructive behaviors, which are unacceptable. It is therefore illegal according the confusion teachings, except under circumstances where an individual has shown loyalty to an institution to which he belongs. Suicide in some cases is viewed as an escape from self. Sociologists analyze suicide in accordance with its motivation to escape from self-awareness (Khatwani 2007). In this regard, the casual chain starts with certain events that extremely fall short of standards and individual’s expectations. The failures are internally attributed, which makes self-awareness painful. The self-inadequacies triggers negative effects in a person and the individual longs to escape from self-awareness and other effects associated with it. This is what leads to suicide. This is mainly because those who commit suicide hold the belief that by doing so, they will relieve themselves of the burden of having to undergo the stress of life. This is the general belief with regard to the definition. Therefore, other intentions of the dead are therefore less important. This has been the view held by the western culture and even China when suicide has been used as a means to escape burdens that may have befallen an individual. Retterstol (1993 p.11) notes that in China, special motives of suicidal deaths were common and acceptable. For instance, a general who murders himself for losing a battle, individuals who commit suicide in remembrance of their deceased fathers, and the deposed statesman committing suicide for protesting against a policy. In this case, Retterstol (1993 p.11) asserts that in case an individual happened to lose face by disobeying the law or loss, the best solution was to commit suicide which was acceptable. On the other hand, if the criminal; was a person of high rank, then an Emperor would send him a yellow silk scarf with which to hang himself for him to avoid being subjected to criminal prosecution or death sentences. It is for this reason that many Chinese generals have had yellow silk scarf sent to them to commit suicide. Social reaction to Suicide Different societies react differently with regard to how they view suicide. Dyregrov, Plyhn and Dieserud (2010) note that the church, politicians, health services and professionals suggests that suicide is affected by the view held by the society. They argue that the way suicide is explained and understood in the society also leads to creation and upholding the attitudes that the deceased’s bereaved family has towards themselves and how they are taken by others. Nevertheless, prejudice concerning stigmatization of suicide is common to the society. For instance, according to the western culture dominated by Christianity, suicide is seen as a curse and is condemned in all manner of terms (Demy and Stewart 1998 p.5-28). These in most cases see those who attempt suicide being stigmatized in the society. This is because the act of attempting to commit suicide goes against the teachings of the bible according to Deuteronomy and Exodus, which prohibits any form of murder. In fact, in most societies where suicide is prohibited, this kind of stigmatization sometimes extends to members of the bereaved family. In conclusion, there are big cultural differences with regard to suicidal behaviors and cultural influences, and the reasons for committing suicide and methods used to commit the act. These cultural differences are mainly because of physiological differences between individual members of the different cultures. The major causes of suicide have been identified as either physiological or social. This includes, drug abuse, depression and other social integrations such as financial difficulties and interpersonal problems. When competing cultural differences interacts, this causes increased stress in less dominate cultures. It is evident that certain societies embrace suicide as something normal for one to do. This has been evident with the Hinduism, and Budhists in which suicide is viewed as the best scarifies an individual can offer either either to the ancestors or a gateway to salvation. In this perspective, the motive of the dead does not matter (Amery 1999 p19-38). For instance, an individual who maybe commits suicide due to depression will be translated as a matter of scarifies to their ancestors. This is in contrast to western culture’s viewpoint. According to the western culture, suicide is not acceptable in the society according to biblical teachings. This means that anybody who commits suicide is seen as immoral and in most cases stigmatized plus members of his family. It is also clear that under western culture, suicide is used as the last resort. Following the arguments put forward, it is evident that what is defined as a suicide is more a matter of what the coroner thinks, than what the dead person intended (Docstoc par 2). However, irrespective of the perspective a society looks at suicide, a tragic incidence affects both the individual and the members of his circle. This is because it has the impact of creating stigmatization in societies where it is prohibited. It is therefore important that measures be taken to ensure that preventive measures are employed to stop an individual from committing the act. The measures may include brain search, education of people, clinicians and the public. References Amery, J. (1999). On Suicide: a discourse on Voluntary death. Indiana, IN: Indians University Press. Baudelot, C., & Establet, R. (2008). Suicide: the hidden side of modernity. Cambridge: Polity. Cannon, B. (2008). Motivations for suicide in the movies: External and Internal Forces: Turking electronic publications, issue 5. Retrieved on 14 April 2012 from http://sites.google.com/site/psychologyinfilm/articles/suicide Durkhein, E., & Simpson, G. (1959). Suicide. New York, NY: Simpson and Schuster. Docstoc (N.d.) Deviance and Social Control Unit M5 Suicide. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Apr. 2012 Read More