How Do Discourses of Race Shape Policing Policies of BME Communities in Britain - Essay Example

? How do dis s of "race" shape policing policies of BME communities in Britain? Introduction Britain has undergone significant transformations post World War II. There has been a sharp rise in number of people from various cultures and countries, with diverse ethnic backgrounds, which has often led to racial unrest especially in urban areas. Nearly three decades back, Lord Scarman’s report (1981) on civic unrest, highlighted issues within the relationship that existed between British minority ethnic communities (BME communities) and the police. Despite being at a greater risk for victimisation, BME communities still tend to receive poor police services, have an unfavourable attitude towards police activities and hence less likely to report crimes especially by the young members of the community (Home Office 2004). The 1993 murder of Stephen Lawrence in London also highlighted these urban problems. Recent researches in the twenty-first century have also highlighted issues that give rise to grave concerns regarding treatment of people from BME communities by the UK criminal justice system (CJS), and the negative experience that permeate to the level of sentencing and enforcement (Home Office 2003). Owing to the fact that police service forms to be the gateway to the UK CJS and the visible contact point for the civic populace in tackling crime, it translates into the fact that they have a direct effect on the lives of people than any other enforcement agencies under the UK Home Office (Bowling and Phillips 2002). Therefore, it is essential that their integrity and behaviour, while dealing with the civic populace, remain effective yet fair. Bowling, B., and Phillips, C., 2002. Racism, Crime and Justice. Harlow: Longman. Home Office, 2003. Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System: A Home Office publication under Section 95 of the Criminal Justice Act 1991. London: Home Office. Home Office, 2004. Race and the Criminal Justice System: An Overview to the Complete Statistics 2002-2003. London: Home Office. In the arena of framing policies the government, though committed to a fair and effective criminal Justice system, must in effect create policies that are free from discrimination, so that all minority ethnic groups feel confident of receiving community safety and justice. Clear evidences that the UK criminal justice system functions in a discriminatory manner based on racism was highlighted in the policy agenda in the Macpherson Report (1999) and the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry. The type of relationship that exists between the civic populace and police has always been in the limelight and recently been receiving greater attention and criticism, especially in the context of their relationship with the BME communities. Policing, whether as a service or a force, as per regulations should not vary from one social group to another. However, various research evidences reveal that, white skinned people tend to have a better experience and relationship with the police than those belonging to the BME communities who are primarily non-whites (Bowling and Phillips 2002). Thus, a colour line distinctly defines the relationship that exists between ethnic minority communities and the police in the UK, as is also seen in many of the other western nations worldwide (Bowling and Phillips 2002). This is also evident from a recent incident that took place on 4th August 2011 where the UK police officers shot dead a young black man named Mark Duggan in Tottenham (north London). This shooting and its subsequent mishandling by the Independent Police Complaints Commission and Metropolitan Police led to a series of riots across various cities in England. Similar to the disturbances as seen in 2001 and 2005 that spread across north English urban areas, the underlying reasons for the riots became a core topic for strong debates while framing policing policies, though unlikely to reach any consensus. However, here it is quite evident that the incident and the immediate response by the police forces to Mark Duggan’s death was a clear sign that relationship between the UK police forces (and the overall criminal justice system) and the minority ethnic communities (BME) remains as fragile and agitated as before. Bowling, B., and Phillips, C., 2002. Racism, Crime and Justice. Harlow: Longman. The general research aim of this essay is to conduct a critical analysis and review the extent to which discourses on racism have affected the shaping of policing policies of BME communities in Britain. From a brief study of the available literature, it can be suggested that despite bringing in some positive changes within policing policies, from an overall perspective there remains a wide disparity between the British Police mind-set on racism and the provisions made within various legislations that aim at fair treatment of all communities residing in Britain, including the BME community members. Discussion Brief history of the integration of racism within discourses of social science researches for framing public policies The role of racism within British society has been a constant source of academic and policy related debates right from post-WWII; however, it gained signi?cance within the study of social science researches chiefly during the 1970s (Solomos 2003). As regards framing of public policies related to policing activities, however questions on ethnicity and racism have been part of the agenda as early as 1960s, where policy development looked at cultural and social integration; anti-discrimination laws aimed at dealing with issues of exclusion in arenas of housing, jobs; and in advocating multicultural policies in aspects such as education. During the 1960s, there was rising awareness amongst various social science researchers that Britain was gradually turning into a complex multicultural society, and there were greater instances of public debate related to policies such as racism and immigration, and the slowly transforming boundaries of true ‘Britishness’ and national identity. The hazy borderline that exists between the British (white skinned people) and other minority communities has been at the core of all policy debates regarding immigration and racism since the 1960-70s (Cohen 1994). A look at the public policies show that there has been a wide variety of legislations on issues related to immigration, nationality, urban policy, race relations, human rights and criminal justice that have helped to frame public discourses regarding issues related to racism and ethnicity within the civic populace. Cohen, R., 1994. Fuzzy Frontiers of Identity: The British Case and the Others. London: Longman. Solomos, J., 2003. Race and Racism in Britain (3rd Ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Evidences of Racism within the UK police forces The core question that has been at the basis of most contemporary debates is how race or racism came to play a significant role in shaping current policing policies of the BME communities in the UK. While ‘ethnicity’ and ‘race’ are often used in parallel while referring to various social groups that vary, as regards, physical attributes which are given social importance when speaking of race; or in terms of place of origin, culture, language, without focusing on the physical attributes while dealing with ethnicity, there racism cannot be made equivalent to ethnicity. Racism, as a concept, relates to the concept of race, and is attributed to the members of a society that make differences based on different social groups, or at least some social members behave in a manner that gives rise to racism as an ideational and behavioural result of making racial differences (Mosse 1985). A society, which fails to acknowledge the presence of varying racial groups within itself, would fail to get rid of racism (Goldberg 2008). Thus, racism discourses are important for creating general awareness, which would subsequently help in the shaping of public policies related to policing activities. Goldberg, D. 2008. The Threat of Race: Re?ections on Racial Neoliberalism. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Mosse, G., 1985. Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Britain has traditionally been a predominantly white nation (Lupton and Power 2004). However post WWII, this picture has significantly changed with the influx of immigrants from different countries and currently the face of racism has taken a more multicultural and multi-coloured form. With greater number of diverse groups entering Britain and the complexity of maintaining these communities, racism has further expanded to encompass hostile behaviour between people of varying cultures. At the beginning, the minority ethnic groups were an overall disadvantaged lot when compared with the white community, and this was taken into consideration from various negative experiences of the immigrants after migration and in the subsequent years as they settled down in the UK. There are many examples stretching over the last four decades that reveals the adverse relations between the BME communities and police. According to some researchers, policing the BME communities initially seemed as a mere extension of the concept of colonial policing, as was seen in Africa, India and the Caribbean, and which simply moved inward in the context of policing the immigrants that were viewed as domestic colonies (Sivanandan 1982). Such high were the feeling of racism that the white community felt “the presence or proximity of black and minority ethnic people can exacerbate white fear of crime and lead to the belief among whites that they face a higher risk of becoming a victim of crime and that the perpetrator is likely to be of a different ethnicity” (Webster, 2007: 27). Sivanandan, A., 1982. A Different Hunger: Writings on Black Resistance. London: Pluto. Webster, C., 2007. Understanding race and crime. NY: Mc-Graw Hill. Various researches that show evidences of racism against the minority communities and oppressive policing in the UK date back to the 1960s, when the West Indian Standing Council report claimed that: “It has been confirmed from reliable sources that sergeants and constables do leave stations with the express purpose of going nigger hunting. That is to say, they do not get orders from superiors to act in this way, but among themselves they decided to bring in a coloured person at all cost” (Hunte, 1966: 12). Hunte, J., 1966. Nigger Hunting in England? London: West Indian Standing Conference. Britain can justifiably be labelled as a ‘white man’s’ nation dispensing the ‘white law’ to some extent (Bowling and Phillips 2002: xv). During the post-war years, the police have been functioning under some stereotype notions that minority communities, especially the black people, tend to be a special threat to the society. Thus, they can be labelled as a type of social problem requiring special treatment, which clearly shows the problematic status of the UK police forces while dispensing their activities (Gilroy, 1987). Owing to such wrong notions on racism, the members of the BME communities, especially the young members, have been stereotyped as criminals, as a result faced discrimination and overzealous policing activities. The underlying politics related to racism become even more evident during the 1970s. Before this time, the community members belonging to South Asian and Caribbean islands were not perceived as more criminal than the white community members were (Knowles, 2003). Post 1970s, as the relationship between police forces and black communities deteriorated, riots broke out in many of the urban areas, such as Brixton and Bristol during the early 80s, which resulted in increasing number of black arrests again clearly showing evidences of racism within the police forces (Solomos 2003). On the other hand, community members from South Asian communities were perceived as passive with strong family bonds (Gilroy 1987). The 2001 riots in north England however saw the criminalisation of the South Asian community members, especially the youths. The major conflicts between BME community members and the police mainly occurred in the context of over policing in areas where the ethnic minority communities resided. Currently, observations have revealed that members from the BME communities have greater chances of being ‘stopped and searched,’ which are more intrusive, than a member from white counterpart would face (Newburn and Hayman 2001). This is more relevant currently, after the Islamic war on Terror, where Asian Muslim men are specifically targeted for ‘stop and search.’ Bowling, B., and Phillips, C., 2002. Racism, Crime and Justice. Harlow: Longman. Gilroy, P., 1987. There ain't no black in the Union Jack: the cultural politics of race and nation. London :Hutchinson Knowles, C., 2003. Race and Social Analysis. London: Sage. Newburn, T. and S. Hayman, 2001. Policing, Surveillance and Social Control: CCTV and police monitoring of suspects. Cullompton:Willan. Solomos, J., 2003. Race and Racism in Britain (3rd Ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Changes brought in by discourses on racism within police policies After the early 1980 riots, the police along with panic-stricken mass media coverage, diverted attention from the government’s failure in handling the crisis. Instead, they chose to focus on the ‘ethnic’ aspect of the issue, without reviewing the socioeconomic or urban problems associated with the riots (Knowles 2003). However, they rightly reckoned that blacks had turned into a new force within the British social classes and if kept uncontrolled, had the potential of destabilising the nation’s long cultural and traditional ‘white’ history (Cashmore, and McLaughlin, 1991 2). It was from this notion that the concept of black criminality became swiftly associated with the Caribbean or African culture within the UK police and social mind-set. The Macpherson report, published in 1999, highlighted the fact that racism exists within the police forces, wherein it clearly stated, “institutional racism exists both in the Metropolitan Police Service and in other Police Services and other institutions countrywide” (Macpherson, 1999: para. 6.39). While Macpherson’s discourse on the issue of racism has affected in shaping a great deal of policing policies and other areas of the UK Criminal Justice System there are no doubts that institutional racism has played a major role in further deteriorating the already soured relationship between British police forces and the BME community members. Cashmore, E, and McLaughlin, E, 1991. Out of Order? Policing Black People. London: Routledge. Knowles, C., 2003. Race and Social Analysis. London: Sage. Macpherson Report, 1999. Retrieved from,  http://www.merton.gov.uk/council/decision-making/scrutiny/scrutinypublications/pdf.macphersonscrutinyreport.pdf. [accessed 10th April 2013] In the 2005 Home Office report, there are insights into the various changes in policing activities in response to the Macpherson report on racism (Foster, Newburn, and Souhami 2005). The report reveals paradox within findings as regards the use of racist language, owing to which BME officers felt sceptical about the actual changes within the police forces. In this context Foster, Newburn, and Souhami commented “Although the general excision of racist language from the police service is an important and marked change, it raises the question of the extent in which this is indicative of changes in the culture and practices of the police service more broadly” (2005: 38). Here it can be suggested that a complete eradication of racism from the UK police forces is quite unlikely if there are no changes within the overall British society. If racial discrimination is not acknowledged and addressed by the general society, racism will manifest itself through the criminal justice system, if not in other arenas, thus, making the modifications within police policies mere cosmetic changes (Panayi: 1996). Foster, J., Newburn, T. and Souhami, A., 2005. Assessing the Impact of the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry. London: Home Office. Panayi, P (eds.), 1996. Racial Violence in Britain in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. London: Leicester University Press. Macpherson’s discourses and recommendations on racism, which were widely accepted by the UK government, brought about a significant reforms in the policing policies that targeted at a better relationship between the BME communities and the UK police. The Immigration and Asylum Act 1999 and the Criminal Justice Bill 2002 were framed, though critics largely claimed that the laws though targeted fair treatment negatively affected the ethnic minorities owing to the deeply engrained institutional racism (Bourne 2001). The Anti-Terrorism Act 2001 similarly was claimed to be discriminatory, and is viewed as violating basic human rights in the name of national security (Bourne 2001). Bourne, J., 2001. The life and times of institutional racism. Race and Class 43(2): 7-22. Amongst the policy changes, the most important one was the Race Relations (Amendment) Act 2000 that applied the Race Relations Act 1976 to the police. This was an important step towards making it illegal any form of discrimination (direct or indirect) while providing police services. The government also published the police reform White Paper, Building Communities, Beating Crime (2004) that was the a further step in a series of programs framed for bringing in police reforms that would allow for better handling of the BME community members. Furthermore, the Home Secretary, under section 36A of the Police Act 1996 (Police Reform Act 2002, section 1) has created certain specific strategic priorities for the UK police. One of the priorities as found in the National Policing Plan 2005-08 aims at “provid[ing] a citizen focussed police service which responds to the needs of individuals, especially victims and witnesses, and inspires public confidence in the police, particularly among minority ethnic communities” (Thames Valley Police, nd, 7). Researches have distinguished that the BME officers believe modifications made in policing policies based on racism discourses were mainly cosmetic in nature. While undoubtedly, some in the police forces have made efforts to try to bridge the gap between BME communities and police forces, many issues that are connected with routine police practices and service delivery remain unsolved. This is largely due to failure to comprehend the policing ways amongst the various communities, and more specifically, in failure to analyse correctly the principle of policing based on requirements (Foster, Newburn, and Souhami 2005). Foster, J., Newburn, T. and Souhami, A., 2005. Assessing the Impact of the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry. London: Home Office. Thames Valley Police, nd. Vulnerable and Intimidated Witnesses. Retrieved from  http://www.thamesvalley.police.uk/pub-policiesandprocedures-vulnerable-and-intimidated-witnesses.pdf. [accessed 9th april 2013] Conclusion In keeping with many of the developed nations worldwide, the relationship between the UK police and BME communities has not been a very pleasant one, and for this reason, Britain has often been labelled as a racist society from an overall viewpoint (Panayi: 1996). As was identified in the Macpherson report, racism is seen in almost all institutions of the UK, thus making it more of a social problem. The Scarman (1981) report and the Macpherson Inquiry (1999) both of which have provided in-depth discourses on racism have undoubtedly brought about significant changes in the context of policing policies in the last two decades, especially in the context of dealing with the black community. However, whether the mind-set of the police, as regards dealing with racism has really changed, remains open to debate. Panayi, P (eds.), 1996. Racial Violence in Britain in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. London: Leicester University Press. References Bourne, J., 2001. The life and times of institutional racism. Race and Class 43(2): 7-22. Bowling, B., and Phillips, C., 2002. Racism, Crime and Justice. Harlow: Longman. Cohen, R., 1994. Fuzzy Frontiers of Identity: The British Case and the Others. London: Longman. Bowling, B. and Phillips, C., 2002. Racism, Crime and Justice. Harlow: Longman. Cashmore, E, and McLaughlin, E, 1991. Out of Order? Policing Black People. London: Routledge. Foster, J., Newburn, T. and Souhami, A., 2005. Assessing the Impact of the Stephen Lawrence Inquiry. London: Home Office. Gilroy, P., 1987. There ain't no black in the Union Jack: the cultural politics of race and nation. London :Hutchinson Goldberg, D. 2008. The Threat of Race: Re?ections on Racial Neoliberalism. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. Home Office, 2003. Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System: A Home Office publication under Section 95 of the Criminal Justice Act 1991. London: Home Office. Home Office, 2004. Race and the Criminal Justice System: An Overview to the Complete Statistics 2002-2003. London: Home Office. Hunte, J., 1966. Nigger Hunting in England? London: West Indian Standing Conference. Knowles, C., 2003. Race and Social Analysis. London: Sage. Macpherson Report, 1999. Retrieved from,  http://www.merton.gov.uk/council/decision-making/scrutiny/scrutinypublications/pdf.macphersonscrutinyreport.pdf. [accessed 10th April 2013] Mosse, G., 1985. Toward the Final Solution: A History of European Racism. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Newburn, T. and S. Hayman, 2001. Policing, Surveillance and Social Control: CCTV and police monitoring of suspects. Cullompton: Willan. Panayi, P (eds.), 1996. Racial Violence in Britain in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. London: Leicester University Press. Sivanandan, A., 1982. A Different Hunger: Writings on Black Resistance. London: Pluto. Solomos, J., 2003. Race and Racism in Britain (3rd Ed.). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Thames Valley Police, nd. Vulnerable and Intimidated Witnesses. Retrieved from  http://www.thamesvalley.police.uk/pub-policiesandprocedures-vulnerable-and-intimidated-witnesses.pdf. [accessed 9th april 2013] Webster, C., 2007. Understanding race and crime. NY: Mc-Graw Hill. Read More