Counter-Terrorism Aims and Approaches - Case Study Example

Name Class Unit Introduction Research has shown that drivers of terrorism are complex and multidimensional. Despite this, terrorism has been associated with social, religious and ethnic divisions (Cronin & Ludes, 2004). This is especially for ISIS (Islamic State in Iraq and Syria) which has been able to attract several Western countries’ citizens through radicalisation. The US invasion of Iraq in 2003 was a move that led to the splintering of the coalition against terrorism and also led to reduced focus on fighting Al Qaeda and Taliban (Cockburn, 2015). It also led to enhanced radical elements in Muslim countries. This is due to the fact that groups such as al-Qaida and Taliban were able to gain sympathy from fellow Muslims. This metamorphosed to a growing opposition of among the radical Muslims towards West especially the US. According to Cockburn (2015), when the US withdrew from Iraq in 2011, the existing marginalisation of the Sunnis by the existing Nouri Al Maliki government led to the rise of the Islamic state of Iraq which became the predecessor of ISIS. ISIS has become a major threat to western countries and global at large (Alexander & Myers, 2015). ISIS has successfully sponsored attacks in the Western world by taking advantage of social, religious and ethnic divisions. This essay discusses how to counter social, religious and ethnic divisions in the fight against terrorism. The success of ISIS in Western world ISIS has successfully hit western countries targets which they have called a “victory against their Western enemies”. The recent attacks happened in Brussels, who had been participating in anti-Islamic state military coalition. It is believed that Brussels dysfunctional security services and the availability of jihadists played a major role (Karen, Watkins & Giratikanon, 2016). The ISIS attacks to the west are also aimed at gaining new recruits in Western countries and Arab countries. It is also believed that about 5000 western countries Muslims have travelled to Syria to join ISIS (Perešin, 2015). The western countries jihadists have been under crackdown since the attacks on the western countries started. The last decade has witnessed several actions by the western countries which have led to the success of ISIS. The Sunni ethnic tribe which had been trained by the US failed to be incorporated into the Iraq army leading them to join ISIS, which was then known as Al Qaeda in Iraq. These were highly trained tribesmen where some had earlier worked as Army Base Officers in Iraq. The military skills made the ISIS an effective force (Cockburn, 2015). ISIS media strategy has also been a tool used to reach the western countries. ISIS had a massive media apparatus that has been able to penetrate the western countries and attract followers worldwide (Alexander & Myers, 2015). The social, ethnic and religious divisions in the western countries have acted as drivers for terrorism in the western countries. This is due to the fact that ISIS has used these divisions to recruit and plan their attacks on the western countries (Perešin, 2015). Most of the western countries are predominantly Christian countries with Muslims as a minority. The division between Muslims and Christians in the western countries is high. The level of integration between the Western Muslims and Christians has been low (Cesari, 2009). Immigrants to the western countries from the Muslim countries have not fully integrated into the Western culture. The ethnicity divide is thus evident among most of the Muslim migrants in the western countries. There exist negative perceptions and attitudes of Muslims in the west (PEW, 2011). Social divisions are also very evident. These divisions have largely contributed to the radicalisation of the western countries Muslims who carry out terror for ISIS. The divisions have led to some of the western countries’ citizens traveling to Syria and join ISIS with an aim of carrying out attacks. The western countries supporters of ISIS have come from a wide range of ethnic and social backgrounds (Perešin, 2015). The great threat to western countries is not from the group operating overseas but from the radicalised home-grown terrorists who have allegiance to these groups. Most of the radicalised members joining ISIS are new converts to Islam. The threat of returning fighters is also a threat facing the western countries (Karen, Watkins & Giratikanon, 2016). It is thus evident that the success of ISIS in the western countries is partly being driven by the existing social, ethnic and religious divides which are used in radicalisation and recruiting new members. The divisions of Western World Social division In the western world, social divisions have been in existence especially between the immigrant Muslims and the citizens. In most of the European countries, the arriving Muslim population have been facing social exclusion (Ezcurra & Palacios, 2016). The attacks that have happened in the western countries have further increased the social barriers between the Muslim community who are a minority and the locals. There have been several social conflicts between the Muslims and the rest Europeans. For example, calling for arrangements for women only hours in the local public swimming pools and refusal of some of the Muslim students to take biology classes (Vaisse, 2008). Most of the social conflicts that exist in the west can be associated with Islam. For example, there have been cases of forced marriages, honour crimes and wearing the headscarf in the areas where it is forbidden such as in France public service (Walterick, 2006). The Western war on terror has largely impacted the social cohesion that existed in these countries (Gest, 2010). This is through the shaping of stereotypes and creating a group identity. The war has invoked a distinction between the friend and enemy leading to reinforcement of certain stereotypes. These are complex stereotypes which are not only based on the domestic context but also participation in the global war on terrorism (Babacan & Tahiri, 2011). This is due to the fact that certain social identities in the western countries are being associated with terrorism or being a threat to the national security. Social inclusion in the western countries has not taken account of the social exclusion that exists based on ethnicity, race or religion (Ezcurra & Palacios, 2016). This includes the occurrence of the racially motivated attacks on Muslim communities in Western countries (Neild, 2009). It also includes the vilifications of the immigrants and other acts of racism. Religious division In the western world, religious divisions exist. The divisiveness that exists in the religions leads to isolation and acts as a root to terrorism (Choi & Piazza, 2014). In the most of the western countries, this involves the minority Muslim communities and the majority of the population (Ross, 2015). This has led to ISIS attacks being claimed to be retribution on the “war against Islam”. There has been a rise in religious conflicts among the western countries such as France, who have the largest Muslim population in Europe. Countries such a France have worked in separating the state from religion. This has seen several controversial bans such as a ban on veils, kippahs and crosses in 2004. Lately, the government banned wearing of Niqab among the Muslim women (Walterick, 2006). Muslims have been expressing that they feel under attack for their faith in some countries (Shadid & van Koningsveld, 2002). For example, Muslims in France have claimed that the ban on religious symbols was too brutal and singled out Muslims. The growing influence of radicalisation and terrorist attacks has made the religious divisions more evident in the western countries. Despite the fact that most of the terrorist attacks are individualised, the religious tensions in the western countries are highly diffuse. It is important to note that Muslims tends to identify with their religion rather than their nationality, unlike Christians (PEW, 2011). The divisions in theism in the western countries have given the ISIS among other terror groups a claim during their recruitment in western countries. Some Muslims are led to believe they are under attack for their faith hence the need to join the terror groups. Also, ISIS has claimed to be attacking the west for being against Islam (Alexander & Myers, 2015). The divisiveness in theism in the western world as a driver to terrorism cannot be ignored. Ethnic division Ethnic divisions in the western countries have been on rise fuelled by immigration. Research shows that an increase in ethnic diversity can foster inter-communal violence and conflict when in conjunction with other factors (Phillips, 2007). The wave of immigration in most of the European countries has upset the ethnic balance. This is a major contributor to violence as well as terrorism (Lia, 2007). There has been an increase in hate crimes and gang violence with social unrest. There has also been an increase in support for the radical parties with extremism and violence involving the immigrants on rising. There is a distinct possibility that with the rise in ethnic divisions, ethnic-based terrorism may arise. This may be as a response to hate crimes, alienation and discrimination of the immigrants in the western countries. It is important to note that ethnic divisions lead to ethnic lobbies (Choi & Piazza, 2014). These are lobbies for their countries of origin who may work for the terrorist groups such as ISIS operating in their home countries. The growing influence of social media links and mass media may play a major role in expanding global terror networks. This includes the ethnic diaspora communities supporting the terror groups in home countries using the banking network. This is due to the fact that groups such as ISIS expect more support from the privileged communities living in the western countries (Alexander & Myers, 2015). An example occurred in 2002 in Canada. A report showed that Canada, which is built on immigration have a lot of international terrorist organisations which are active. These are terrorist groups which are built on ethnic and nationalist conflicts. When the society is multi-ethnic as seen in some of the western countries, it becomes easier for foreign terrorism to thrive through blending in. There is a strong association of ethnic divisions and terrorism (Engene, 2004). Ethnic diverse countries tend to have more terrorism than those who are less diverse (Emerson et al., 2009). There has been evidence across the Europe of police routinely carrying out checks based on identity generalisation. Generalisation based on race, ethnicity, origin or religion creates alienation and hate and is discriminatory. Even before the 9/11 attack, ethnic profiling has been there in the European countries (Cesari, 2009). This was mainly carried out on the ethnic minorities and immigrants. After the 9/11 attacks, ethnic profiling has been on the rise (el‐Aswad, 2013). For some, profiling Muslims is seen as a matter of common sense which is wrong. In Germany, there have been reports of massive search outside the mosques (Neild, 2009). This fuels ethnic and racial divisions in the society. Countering these as drivers of terrorism (Approaches) Creating culture of inclusion in western countries To curb terrorism, the drivers for must be addressed. In this case, there is a need to address the social, religious and ethnic divisions in the west that ISIS may take advantage of in spreading terrorism. It is important to note that terrorism that rises from people who have social, cultural and ethnic ties can be very stable and a major threat (Engene, 2004). The first step in countering terrorism in Europe is creating a culture of inclusion. The western countries are built on social, cultural and religious diversity. There is a need for the political leadership to come up with inclusion approach that will bring all people together (Alexander & Myers, 2015). This is through overcoming the existing social divisions and generating acceptance for the diversity (Ratcliffe & Newman, 2011). There is a need for integration policies which are capable of promoting equality and diversity. This is through recognising the pluralist nature of the western society. Use of legislation on cultural norms may be perceived as heavy handedness and also intolerant as seen in France (Laurence & Vaisse, 2007). This may also play into the hands of extremists such as ISIS to strengthen their narrative of Muslims victimisation by the western countries. Religious tolerance The religious divide issue has to be addressed for the full integration to occur. There is a need for integrating the existing Muslim religious communities to the existing state structures on religion. This involves creating conditions which make the religious Muslims feel comfortable in the existing national institutions. An alliance between the state and religious authorities and faith communities must be forged to ensure there is sharing of moral, economic and social attributes. There is a need to educate and create awareness that the acts of terrorism cannot be associated with Islam. This is because the association of Islam with terrorism has led to isolation and alienation of the Muslim minorities (PEW, 2011). The alienation of Muslims is a major drive for terrorism (Lia, 2007). Bridging ethnic gaps The western society must ensure that ethnic divisions are addressed. This includes inclusion of the ethnic minority groups from the migrants into the political systems. This will ensure that there is no individual who is excluded from the political life (Cronin & Ludes, 2004). Political alienation of the Muslim minorities must be eliminated to ensure ethnic marginalisation and exclusion does not lead to terrorism. It is the time that the society in western countries must admit that just like mono-ethnic societies, multi-ethnic societies are faced with divisions which have to be overcome through trusting each other (Best, 2005). Transnational terrorism in western countries can be addressed through the creation of a social identity. New models of integration and assimilation can help a lot in creating loyalty to the state. Therefore, the main alternative to counter these kinds of drivers to terrorism is through inclusion and focusing on social-economic integration (Laurence & Vaisse, 2007). This is through improving the access to politics, enhancing labour market access for all and addressing social exclusion. Social integration The fundamental issue in the western countries is the integration of the Muslim community into the western secular society. This is where the immigrant Muslim society is expected to accept and respect the western social values and systems (Cronin & Ludes, 2004). The western countries must strengthen the existing models of integration. For example, France has assimilation model based on secularism and citizenship being tool for integration. UK and Netherlands supports a multicultural model. This diverse model must be integrated together to come up with a common model for the western countries (Cronin & Ludes, 2004). Eliminating ethnic profiling Ethnic profiling in the western countries must be stopped. It is important to note that there is no evidence of ethnic profiling stopping crime (Legomsky, 2005). Also, ethnic profiling is against the law and a breach of basic human right. When ethnic profiling is carried out, an entire race or religious group is stigmatised. It signals to the community that the group are more likely to engage in terrorism hence widening the social division (Neild, 2009). To counter ethnic and social divisions in western countries, profiling must be addressed. This is due to the fact that profiling reduces policing efficacy. Through profiling, the police rely on stereotypes and focuses on areas which reduce their effectiveness (Davies, 2003). Criminalising the minority through creating a division based on profiling may reduce cooperation in the fight against terrorism (Parmar, 2011). This is because the minority loses their confidence and trust in the rest of society. This makes the minority unwilling to help in the fight against terrorism (Neild, 2009). Also, ethnic profiling gives the terror organisations an incentive to look for recruits who do not fit the profile being searched by police. As an alternative, it is effective to base profiling on individual behaviour than the entire race. This is a move that can reduce cases of ethnic profiling greatly and also increase the effectiveness of counter-terrorism activities (Parmar, 2011). The new method should emphasise on the use of data and cooperation with the ethnic minorities in the society. Creating strong confidence and ties with the Muslims in the western countries will bridge the gaps on social, ethnic and religious divisions (Neild, 2009). This will only be attained if there is no alienation of the minority such as Muslims in the western countries. There is a need for funding on the collaboration between police and the minorities (Legomsky, 2005). This includes funding for pilot projects and research. This is work which can be carried out by the civil societies and academic bodies with an aim of addressing ethnic profiling and making law enforcement effective (Davies, 2003). The civil groups representing the minorities should work together with the law enforcement with an aim of making police efficient and eliminating profiling. Policies approach The western countries must continue working to address the root of radicalisation. This includes the divisions based on social, religious and ethnic backgrounds (Davies, 2003). There is a need for policies which are strong in addressing racial, ethnic, social and religious stereotypes. This is especially with the rise of “Islamophobia” in Europe (Neild, 2009). Regional bodies such as EU must force their member states to adopt similar policies that will reduce the existing divisions (Benton & Nielsen, 2013). Policies which are capable of supporting police outreach to the minority ethnic and religious groups must be initiated (Neild, 2009). This is with an aim of creating mutual understanding and trust. Policies used are supposed to foster multiculturalism and promote social cohesion in a society that is increasingly becoming ethnically and religiously diverse (Benton & Nielsen, 2013). Lastly, all antiterrorism measures carried out in Europe should be based on evidence rather than religious or ethnic stereotypes (Legomsky, 2005). Representing a community as a suspect must stop in the western countries (Hickman, Thomas, Silvestri & Nickels, 2011). There is a need for focus on the evidence of involvement in the suspected activity rather than the use of religion or ethnicity. This is respect for diverse religious and cultural practices which must be upheld (Phillips, Ray & Barnes, 2007). Through these measures, it will be possible to address the social, ethnic and religious drivers of terrorism in the western countries. Conclusion To sum up, the paper has been able to explain how ISIS has successfully sponsored attacks in the Western world by taking advantage of social, religious and ethnic divisions. The main aim has been on how to counter social, religious and ethnic divisions in the fight against terrorism. These groups in the western world have helped in advancing terrorist narrative on the west victimisation of Muslims. To counter these divisions as drivers for terrorism, there is a need for inclusion. Creating a culture of inclusion in Europe will help in integrating all groups and avoid cases of radicalization. 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