The Drug Trade and Abuse in Australia - Essay Example

Drugs in Australia Name Institution Drugs in Australia Introduction In the 21st century, the drug trade and abuse have become widespread in Australia (DEA Briefs, 2009). In fact Ridley and Coleman (2015) reported that the abuse or use of illicit is worth A$6.7 billion annually. The drugs have become a demon of both the old and the young and increasingly, the use of it drugs has turned out to one of the social issues menacing in Australia. Compared to other illicit drugs, the amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) prevalence and consumption is second just to the cannabis (Greene, Kerr & Braitberg, 2008, p.395). World health organization defines Amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) as a collection of drugs which consist of amphetamine and methamphetamine. Nevertheless, an array of other components is also incorporated into this class and they include fenetylline, methcathinone, ephedrine, and MDMA, methylphenidate, and pseudoephedrine. Gururajan et al., (2012, p.1123) stated that the report by government health depart held the 2.2 percent of adults from Australia consumed methamphetamine or amphetamines in 2010. The number is even higher among the youth who erroneously believe that such substance is benign and safe. However, ATS bear a severe threat to the nation’s health, economic and social fabric. Therefore, this essay will describe prevalence of amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) in Australia over the past two years and the potential harms and benefits associated with the use of the drug. Prevalence of amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) in Australia over the past two years Amphetamine type stimulants are considered a potent stimulant for the central nervous system which has been illicitly consumed in Australia increasingly from the early 90s (Gately, Fleming & Morris 2015). The Amphetamine type stimulants’ market in Australia has grown and evolved over the years. In Australia and beyond its rise has made it widely consumed illicit drug just after cannabis. In 2014, World Customs Organization (WCO) stated that there was a growth of border detections of the amphetamine-type stimulant in Asia-Pacific region especially in Australia (Mohan 2014). The major detection by the agency was in March 2012 when ATS with more substances of MDMA and methylamphetamine was found. Gately, Fleming and Morris (2015) claimed that the detections were made at the border, on the sea cargo and postal stream where the large amount of several kilograms from 1087 in 2013 to 1998 in 2014. The detection represented an increase of nearly 87 percent. Whilst the general amphetamine-type stimulant prevalence is regarded as stable, research indicates that there is frequent consumption in populations which already consume drugs and fast change in drug-consuming patterns towards the consumption of methamphetamine which is in crystal form, and have a consequential rise in severe harms (Dunn et al, 2007). Hutson et al., (2014, p.255) contended that the most recent National Drug Strategy Household Survey demonstrated no shift in lifetime or recent population consumption levels in ‘meth or amphetamine’ from 2012. The levels consumed by persons aged 14 and above in the previous 12 months remained stable at 2.8%. Nevertheless, whist the general consumption has remained stable statistically considerable changes have been noticed in the frequency and type of the methamphetamine consumptions. However, powder consumption reduced from 49.9 % in survey of 2012 to 28.6 % in the 2013, and the latest consumption of base decreased to 7.8% from 11.6% (Mohan, 2014). In the past 12-month consumption, ice usage has doubled from 23.7 to 50.5%. According to Duff and Moore (2015, p.56), national Drug Strategy Household Survey also claimed in their report that a considerable rise in weekly consumption proportion and a slight rise in monthly consumption as well. The same study on prevalence indicates that in places where ice form of methamphetamine was used, it was consumed at least twice a week in 2014 representing an increase of nearly 18 percent to 20.3 percent (Duff & Moore 2015). Admissions of Amphetamine-type stimulant cases have been reported and documented at national and state jurisdictions, but not at regional levels. In Australia the kind of Amphetamine-type stimulant majorly used consist of methamphetamine, crystalline methamphetamine hydrochloride and dexamphetamine, which are in crystal or ice, liquid or powdered form (Degenhard, Roxburgh & Black 2008, p.245). These could be snorted, injected intravenously or ingested. National Drug and Alcohol Resource Centre information in the last two years indicate a prevalence rate of 9 percent. The higher rate of prevalence has been registered in Western Australia, where consumption stands at 4.2% per year. Bøhling (2014, p.363) posited that in 2013 alone, Western Australia registered the highest number or percentage of individuals consuming amphetamine-type stimulants at the rate 3.8% in comparison to other parts of the country. In 2013, a research in Western Australia confirmed that 44 percent of people living in the region are consuming methylamphetamine. Duff and Moore (2015) asserted that the number increased in 2014 to 78% with more people being lured to get into illicit drugs. Most people favour injection and crystal meth whilst first timers prefer smoking amphetamine-type stimulant. Nationally, the consumption has been rated to higher among the people age between 20–29 years with a ratio between and female standing at 2:1 (Mohan, 2014). Nationally, sniffing, inhaling and smoking have been found the popular modes of ATS consumption, though the method of use differs across Australian cities. In a nation such an Australia, in which more than 90 percent inject the drug into their bodies, considerable risk has been detected in blood-borne viruses’ transmissions (Darke, Kaye and McKetin, 2008, p.259). Despite the fight to control, geographical spread has been widening because the response and awareness has not been consistent and integrated. In a nutshell, with the consumption of the amphetamine-type stimulant currently increasing in Australia, present prevalence needs urgent attention. Researchers and healthcare management experts have expressed a critical need to devise a plan to evaluate the scale and spread of the challenges, harms and responses. Potential harms associated with use of the amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) As any other drug, amphetamine-type stimulant poses serious risks to human and the country as whole. The prospective for physical and psychosocial harm and the financial costs to the country’s health system needs identification of the people affected by the menace. Darke, Kaye and McKetin (2008, p.257) affirmed that potential harms related to amphetamine-type stimulant consumption could be social, psychological or physical. In the last two years, a sharp increase in the number of people being admitted to healthcare institutions with amphetamine-type stimulant-related disorders. More admission in the hospital has an economic risk to Australia. Bartilow and Kihong (2009, p.121) the rise in ore drug users forces the government to allocate more funds in the health sector which could have been used to provide service elsewhere. The production and disposal of illicit drugs and other pharmaceuticals lead to major environmental contamination. Disposal of drugs releases various substances and components into an environment and in sewages after which they can get into aquatic organisms, the vegetation tissues, and sediment, ground and surface (Carvalho et al., 2012, p.1179). Consequently, humans and wildlife are chronically being exposed to some chemicals and drug doses applied in illicit production. The process leads to costs to governments and individuals who are responsible for the public health. Baselt (2011, p.86) opined that the increase of manufacture and peddling of amphetamine-type stimulant within the residential areas creates concern regarding the life for inhabitants, property damage and neighborhood decay resultant from the criminal activity, child endangerment and explosions. The trend of drug consumption needs the societies to commit their resources to the education, evidence-oriented prevention and intervention as well as rehabilitation and treatment (Glennon, 2013, p.646). Amphetamine-type stimulant consumption is also linked with a number of communicable diseases like hepatitis B and C, tuberculosis, HIV, mental diseases and other related sexually transmitted disease (Dunn et al 2007). Mental problems are even worse because they can cause a drug user to rape, sexual harassment on women who work in entertainment or hospitality sectors such as casinos and clubs. Experts also argue that excessive usage of amphetamine-type stimulant can lead to crime. Research conducted by Zhang et al., (2012,. P.193) indicated that amphetamine-type stimulant prompts aggression on human beings making them to act out of control. Baker and Dawe (2005, p.89) argued that higher doses lead to psychosis such as paranoia, delusions and aggression which leads to committing crime. Crimes linked with drug use consist of property crime, shoplifting, driving while intoxicated and drug dealing. Research conducted by the Australian Crime Commission (2007) established that amphetamine-type stimulant consumers have a higher probability to be aggressive or charged with crime. Illicit amphetamine-type stimulant majorly comes from health practitioners and emerges into illicit places because of doctor shopping and diversion. Zhang, Han and Xu (2012, p. 589) argued that if the drug does not cause aggression, it may just cause psychological problems like depression, and anxiety. These two psychological problems normally affect someone’s motivation to work and achieve results. An employee which suffers from Amphetamine-type stimulant may have depression, which will make them have low morale, less motivated and powerless to work towards improvement of the company (Wood et al., 2014). When a high number of employees is not effective to contribute productivity of the company, most of them can be laid off leading high rate of unemployment. In addition, the country’s economic performance may just stagnate rendering it less competitive. Potential benefits associated with use of the amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) Despite the harms, Amphetamine type stimulants also have it benefit to the users. Traditionally, Amphetamine type stimulants were used to treat depression, obesity and nasal congestion (Heal et al., 2013, p.483). This drug is also consumed as a cognitive and performance enhancer, and for recreation as euphoriant and aphrodisiac. People who consume this form of dug feel confident, energetic and have a positive feeling such as happiness, gratitude and like love. In addition, Greene, Kerr and Braitberg (2008) argued that it enables people to be awake and alert when used, hence consumers can use it to study, provide security or stay for a long time entertaining people. Zhang, Han and Xu, (2012, p.590) claimed that amphetamine-type stimulant arouse the central nervous system process by raising the synaptic movements of the three key neurotransmitters within human brain including serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine. The condition bears an effect of generating a euphoric alertness, wakefulness and sense of wellbeing. Amphetamine is consumed by some sportsmen, especially athletes for performance and psychological enhancing effects like in increasing alertness and stamina (Liddle and Connor, 2013, p.490). Conclusion The extensive research about Amphetamine type stimulants in Australia has established an increase of drug peddling and uses both by the youth and the old. With higher rate of prevalence Australia is struggling to prevent the drug manufacture and smuggling of this form of drug into the country. The essay as found out higher prevalence in Western Australia and demography has shown the menace could spread in other regions as well. The harm caused by drug does not only affect individuals, but also the socio-economic factors of the society. The situation means urgent prevention, education, and treatment is highly needed. References Australian Crime Commission. (2007). Illicit Drug Data Report 2005-06. Commonwealth of Australia. Baker, A., & Dawe, S. (2005). Amphetamine use and co-occurring psychological problems: Review of the literature and implications for treatment. Australian Psychologist, 40 (2), 87-94. Baselt, RC. (2011). Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man (9th ed.). Seal Beach, USA: Biomedical Publications. pp. 85–88. Bartilow, H., & Kihong, E. (2009). Free Trader and Drug Smugglers: The Effects of Trade Openness of States' Ability to Combat Drug Trafficking. Latin American Politics and Society 51, 117–145. Bøhling, F. (2014). Crowded Contexts: On the Affective Dynamics of Alcohol and other Drug Use in Nightlife Spaces. Contemporary Drug Problems, vol. 41(3), 361-392. Carvalho M., Carmo, H., Costa, VM., Capela, JP., Pontes, H., Remião, F., Carvalho, F., & Bastos Mde, L. (2012). Toxicity of amphetamines: an update. Arch. Toxicol. 86 (8), 1167–1231. Darke S., Kaye, S., & McKetin, R. (2008). Major Physical and psychological harms of methamphetamine use. Drug Alcohol Rev, 27, 253–282. DEA Briefs. (2009). Briefs and Backgrounds: Drugs and Drug Abuse. El Paso. Degenhardt L., Roxburgh A., & Black E. (2008). The epidemiology of methamphetamine use and harm in Australia. Drug Alcohol Rev, 72, 243-256. Duff, C., & Moore, D. (2015). Counterpublic health and the design of drug services for methamphetamine consumers in Melbourne. Health, 19 (1), 51-66. Dunn, M., Degenhardt, L., Campbell, G., George, J., Johnston, J., Kinner, S., Matthews, A., Newman, J., & White, N. (2007). Australian Trends in Ecstasy and Related Drug Markets 2006: Findings from the Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS). Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales. Gately N., Fleming J., &Morris R (2015). Amphetamine users and crime in Western Australia 1999–2009. Trends and issues in crime and criminal justice number 437. Retrieved 14th September 2015 http://www.aic. gov.au/publications/current%20series/tandi/421-440/tandi437.html Glennon, RA. (2013). Phenylisopropylamine stimulants: amphetamine-related agents. In Lemke TL, Williams DA, Roche VF, Zito W. Foye's principles of medicinal chemistry (7th ed.). Philadelphia, USA: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 646–648. Greene, SL., Kerr, F., & Braitberg, G. (2008). Review article: amphetamines and related drugs of abuse. Emerg. Med. Australas 20 (5), 391–402. Gururajan, A., Manning, E.E., Klug, M., & van den Buuse, M. (2012). Drugs of abuse and increased risk of psychosis development. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, December vol. 46(12), 1120-1135. Heal, DJ., Smith, SL., Gosden, J., & Nutt, DJ. (2013). Amphetamine, past and present – a pharmacological and clinical perspective. J. Psychopharmacol. 27 (6), 479–496. Hutson, PH., Tarazi, FI., Madhoo, M., Slawecki, C., Patkar, AA . (2014). Preclinical pharmacology of amphetamine: implications for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders. Pharmacol. Ther. 143 (3), 253–264. Liddle, DG., & Connor, DJ. (2013). Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS. Prim. Care 40 (2), 487–505 Mohan J. (2014). World Drug Report 2014. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Ridley, K., & Coleman, M. (2015). The epidemiology of amphetamine type stimulant-related admissions in Albany, Western Australia: 2008–2013. Australasian Psychiatry 23(3), 241–244. Wood, S., Sage, JR., Shuman, T., & Anagnostaras, SG. (2014). Psychostimulants and cognition: a continuum of behavioral and cognitive activation. Pharmacol. Rev. 66 (1), 193–221. Zhang, M., Han, L., & Xu, Y. (2012). Roles of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript in the central nervous system. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 39 (6), 586–592. Zhang, Y., Zhong, B., Li, Y., Zi-Long, M., Tian, Y., & Tang, J. (2012). Brain Event-Related Potentials Associated with Psychiatric Symptoms in Amphetamine-Type Stimulant Dependent Patients. The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 43 (2), 189-196. Read More

According to Duff and Moore (2015, p.56), national Drug Strategy Household Survey also claimed in their report that a considerable rise in weekly consumption proportion and a slight rise in monthly consumption as well. The same study on prevalence indicates that in places where ice form of methamphetamine was used, it was consumed at least twice a week in 2014 representing an increase of nearly 18 percent to 20.3 percent (Duff & Moore 2015). Admissions of Amphetamine-type stimulant cases have been reported and documented at national and state jurisdictions, but not at regional levels.

In Australia the kind of Amphetamine-type stimulant majorly used consist of methamphetamine, crystalline methamphetamine hydrochloride and dexamphetamine, which are in crystal or ice, liquid or powdered form (Degenhard, Roxburgh & Black 2008, p.245). These could be snorted, injected intravenously or ingested. National Drug and Alcohol Resource Centre information in the last two years indicate a prevalence rate of 9 percent. The higher rate of prevalence has been registered in Western Australia, where consumption stands at 4.

2% per year. Bøhling (2014, p.363) posited that in 2013 alone, Western Australia registered the highest number or percentage of individuals consuming amphetamine-type stimulants at the rate 3.8% in comparison to other parts of the country. In 2013, a research in Western Australia confirmed that 44 percent of people living in the region are consuming methylamphetamine. Duff and Moore (2015) asserted that the number increased in 2014 to 78% with more people being lured to get into illicit drugs.

Most people favour injection and crystal meth whilst first timers prefer smoking amphetamine-type stimulant. Nationally, the consumption has been rated to higher among the people age between 20–29 years with a ratio between and female standing at 2:1 (Mohan, 2014). Nationally, sniffing, inhaling and smoking have been found the popular modes of ATS consumption, though the method of use differs across Australian cities. In a nation such an Australia, in which more than 90 percent inject the drug into their bodies, considerable risk has been detected in blood-borne viruses’ transmissions (Darke, Kaye and McKetin, 2008, p.259). Despite the fight to control, geographical spread has been widening because the response and awareness has not been consistent and integrated.

In a nutshell, with the consumption of the amphetamine-type stimulant currently increasing in Australia, present prevalence needs urgent attention. Researchers and healthcare management experts have expressed a critical need to devise a plan to evaluate the scale and spread of the challenges, harms and responses. Potential harms associated with use of the amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) As any other drug, amphetamine-type stimulant poses serious risks to human and the country as whole.

The prospective for physical and psychosocial harm and the financial costs to the country’s health system needs identification of the people affected by the menace. Darke, Kaye and McKetin (2008, p.257) affirmed that potential harms related to amphetamine-type stimulant consumption could be social, psychological or physical. In the last two years, a sharp increase in the number of people being admitted to healthcare institutions with amphetamine-type stimulant-related disorders. More admission in the hospital has an economic risk to Australia.

Bartilow and Kihong (2009, p.121) the rise in ore drug users forces the government to allocate more funds in the health sector which could have been used to provide service elsewhere. The production and disposal of illicit drugs and other pharmaceuticals lead to major environmental contamination. Disposal of drugs releases various substances and components into an environment and in sewages after which they can get into aquatic organisms, the vegetation tissues, and sediment, ground and surface (Carvalho et al., 2012, p.1179).

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