Approaches to the Social Sciences - Essay Example

Title: Approaches to the Social Sciences Name Course Tutor Nov 3, 2012 Introduction The essay herein analyses on the two works of Imtoual Ali (2005) titled “Religious Racism and the Media: Representations of Muslim Women in the Australian Print Media” and secondly a chapter entitled “obedience to authority” by Stanley Milgram (2009). These two readings reflect on the social sciences disciplines and this essay will particularly focus on the effect and the impacts that they have on social sciences. The two are thus summarized and analysed in turn. Summary of the two readings According to Milgram, (2009) in his Chapter 8 of his book “Social Psychology”, obedience is a social norm that every community and culture values. If people were left to do whatever they felt like doing at any time, then there would be untold chaos in the society (Milgram, 2009, p. 272) In essence, we are all socialized starting from a very early age to obey and respect authority figures and it becomes such an internalized norm that we can still obey the rules even in the absence of an authority. The author however contends that obedience to authority can as well have tragic effects because people can obey orders to even kill other human beings (Milgram, 2009, p. 273). For instance, the author questions why the My Lai massacre occurred and gives the reason as being that the officers were simply obeying commands and that they did not want to be rejected by their superiors and their fellow officers (Milgram, 2009). In simple language, the My Lai massacre occurred because the soldiers had received direct orders from Lieutenant Calley to execute the shootings against the civilians. They basically followed the social norm of obedience to authority. According to Milgram (2009), obedience to authority can have two types of influence: the informational influence and the normative influence. He also gives another example of Hitler’s Nazi regime in which over six million Jews were killed at the command of Hitler (Milgram, 2009). Interesting to note is that most of the killings were not done by psychopaths or sadists, but by very normal people who knew what they were doing. Indeed, they were just innocent citizens who had succumbed in to the pressure of the powerful authorities. He gives an example of Adolf Eichmann, who was in charge of transporting the Jews to the death camps, and concludes that he was not a monster in the real sense but a bureaucrat who simple carried out the orders he was given without questioning them (Milgram, 2009, p. 273). The racism exerted on the Jews was as a result of social pressure and social influence. Accordingly, the author understands racism as having two diverse impacts on the social disciplines. One is the normative social influence and the other is informational influence (Milgram, 2009). The normative pressures make it difficult for people to stop what they have already started to do. It becomes particularly clear when the person executing the orders is receiving some commands from a defined authority. Giving commands gets people to tend to confirm, the same case which applies to such social practices (Milgram, 2009). Moreover, the author also contends that despite normative pressures that give rise to racism, they are not the sole reason that makes people to comply with authority (Milgram, 2009, p. 278). Informational influence refers to a situation in which people are in a confusing situation and tend to use other people to help define the situation (Milgram, 2009, p. 278). This type of influence becomes important when the situation is unclear and ambiguous, or when there is a crisis and only the people under control have the expertise. When there is such a state of conflict, the only natural thing is that the junior partner will follow the commands of the senior partner. Thus in the case of the racism that occurred against the Jews, there could be a high possibility that the killers simply followed the orders and commands of Adolf Hitler because of informational influence (Milgram, 2009). Thus atrocities may probably be brought about by conformity to orders and obedience to authority. According to Milgram (2009), there are other several reasons why people obey authority. Obedience at times might come just as a matter of conflicting norms. In this respect, people will simply conform to the wrong norms because it becomes difficult to choose which one is the best to follow. Another reason that the author gives fro obeying authority is self-justification (Milgram, 2009). In essence, every time an individual is faced with an important decision or a difficult choice to make, dissonance is produced which results to pressures to reduce it (Milgram, 2009, p. 279). Subsequently, a fully justified decision is what can help the person to make a decision out of the difficult situation (Milgram, 2009, p. 279). At times, this makes the person vulnerable to pressures hence escalating the chosen activity. Accordingly, the author asserts that people do not necessarily act inhumanely because they possess an evil nature besides their human nature. This evil side is supposed to explode at the smallest scratch on its surface and at the flimsiest excuse (Milgram, 2009, p. 280). Rather, it was initially acceptable to inflict harm upon others when ordered to do so. He sees it as a factor expressing a universal aggressive urge (Milgram, 2009). Conclusively, social pressures can combine in very insidious ways to make reasonable and humane people to act in a very inhumane manner (Milgram, 2009, p. 280). That the human act can be totally fragmented and just one man decided to carry out evil acts while gravely harming others. On the other hand Alia Imtoual (2005) expounds on religious racism and how it has been perpetrated by the media. His views are impounded in the article, “Religious Racism and the Media: Representations of Muslim Women in the Australian Print Media”. He analysed two daily Australian Newspapers; the Australian together with the Advertiser and argued that Islam and Muslims faced a climate of hostility and adversity in the Australian print media (Imtoual, 2005). He highlights aspects of racism, general negativity and stereotyping against Islam and towards the Muslims. In many instances, he claims that Muslims are always branded as terrorists, barbaric, violent and in a backward religion. In addition the author asserts that there is scarcity of positive representation of Muslim women in the print media. As a result, this position impacts on the way these Muslims are viewed and positioned in the society as the young Muslim women also view the media with a lot of cynism and mistrust (Imtoual, 2005). This kind of racism has continually strained the relationship between the Australian Muslim community and the media society. According to Imtoual (2005, p. 1), it is religious racism in Australia that culminates into the high levels of non-representation of the Muslim women in the media. That discrimination in the print media contributes largely practices of religious racism in Australia (Imtoual, 2005, p. 2). In many articles that were reviewed by the author, only ten Muslim women were represented in the 179 total articles. In most instances, there is a negative stereotype that the Muslim woman is just one being dressed in all black and with face veils, subordinated by their own Muslim men and only responsible for domestic chores and family issues (Imtoual, 2005). According to Imtoual, Muslim women are always represented as being violent and threatening (2005, p. 2). Most of these attributes are mental images accompanying many stories of tension between Iran and their opponents concerning the nuclear programme in Iran. In many cases, Muslim women are represent ted as an active threat brandished with lethal weapons and guns instead of the usual picture of an object in need of empathy and sympathy (Imtoual, 2005, p. 3). What most articles in the print media imply is that Muslim women belong to major terrorist groups or military organizations responsible for the inhumane crimes across the globe. They are construed as particularly dangerous. Subsequently, Imtoual’s article is based on a pre-existing assumption that Muslim women are only concerned with domestic works and live under the domineering patriarchal Muslim men (Imtoual, 2005, p. 4). According to him, it is then startling and unbelievable to portray women as objects of war. The author also mentions one article in the Australian that ran on July 31 2003 entitled ‘Voice of Saddam honours his “martyr” sons’ that appeared after Sadam Hussein lost his two sons in an American bombing raid (Imtoual, 2005). It showed an Iraqi woman walking past Arabic graffiti which when translated called on the Muslims to struggle with their souls and not to sit still. This is just but some form of racism against the Muslim women (Imtoual, 2005). The implications of the photograph were that the woman was seen as a potential threat to the American troops together with their allies including Australia itself. The overall picture of the woman betrayed in the photograph, according to Imtoual, was menacing (Imtoual, 2005). The whole representation of Muslim women is that they are positioned as figures of latent violence bound to erupt at any time, against the other religious sects or their political enemies (Imtoual, 2005). According to Imtoual, he is also of the view that the negative and racist representation of Muslim women is not only confined to political situations and foreign news (Imtoual, 2005 p. 4). Additionally, she is also represented in the book reviews sections, in financial columns and in special profiles. Most of these representations are still offensive, racist, discriminatory and in the most blatant way (Imtoual, 2005). Most of them represent racism and negativity against Muslims and the Islam community at large. The author also discusses on a particular representation that once occurred in a non-section part of the newspaper. The review was by Greg Sheridan, a renowned foreign affairs journalist on June 7, 2003 with conservative approaches to issues of advocacy and neo-liberal policies in many matters including religious racism in Australia. In the same manner, another journalist, Peter Rodgers reviewed a book by Barnaby Rogerson titled ‘The Prophet Muhammad”. According to Imtoual, Greg Sheridan’s writing is full of vitriolic language and a very adverse attitude towards the Muslims and the Islam community. He particularly argues that fundamentalism is a crisis of modernisation and it is the Muslim’s hostility to modernization that brews their hostility to the western countries, Australia inclusive (Imtoual, 2005). In his writing, he thus equates Islam religion to backwardness which won’t be changed easily or quickly (Imtoual, 2005). Women representation in the Western media is that they are completely covered in black including even their faces. Moreover, the racist views imply the women as being backward, generally stagnated, and stuck and stationery. Their mere appearances embody fundamentalism, backwardness, hostility and Islam (Imtoual, 2005). Although some articles represent Muslim women positively, they are very few. There men have never been represented positively and the reason might be because the women are at times less violent and are at times seen as less threatening than their Muslim men. Because of this, there arises occasional positive representation (Imtoual, 2005). The noted positive representations include once in an article on July 17 2003, written by Rebecca Jenkins which raised awareness of the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission’s consultations with the Arab and Muslim Australians on the issue of racism (Imtoual, 2005). In another issue, a Muslim woman was describing the difficulties undergone by the Muslim women in Australia. The article drew sympathy from the readers as different women were taking opportunities to talk about their experiences (Imtoual, 2005, p. 6). In fact, these were the only two instances in which Muslim women were heard in either newspaper. Imtoual understands the nature of racism as being a negative aspect in the society and having negative effects on the discriminated. The Muslim women who are discriminated against for instance, feel like they are reduced to a symbol of their religion, their veils and hijabs, rather than being seen as innocent individuals with a story, who only happen to be Muslims (Imtoual, 2005). Generally, Muslim women in Australia are presented as heavily veiled creatures, only concerned with domestic and family issues. Moreover, racism, according to the author makes the women to feel oppressed and subordinated (Imtoual, 2005, p. 7). As a result of the racism that is directed at them leaves them suppressed to an extent that they cannot even speak or be heard when they are in the midst of the ‘liberal’, ‘sophisticated’, ‘tolerant’, and liberated ‘western women’. Significantly, racism that continues to exist in the media community in Australia brews a lot of anger and frustration (Imtoual, 2005, p. 8). Many of the Muslim women are frustrated by the fact that no matter how hard they try to counter the negative representations, the media industry still appears to perpetuate the stereotypes (Imtoual, 2005). According to many, the negative images and stereotypes leave them bombarded with anger, frustration and powerlessness. One woman specifically confessed to avoiding watching the national news because of the frustration and distress it brings upon her (Imtoual, 2005, p. 8). The author also contends that the ongoing and persistent negative representations of the Muslim women in the media have had adverse impacts on their daily lives. For most of these women, they feel that the representation of them by the media holds an inaccurate concept of what being a Muslim woman means (Imtoual, 2005). Accordingly, it is these mistaken stereotypes and inaccurate ideas that bring about racism attitudes against them. This also culminates in abuses and racial discrimination, all of which have damaging effects on the women that bear the brunt of religious racism (Imtoual, 2005, p. 9). In addition, they continue to feel threatened, degraded and at the same time angered by the images and ideas perpetrated by the media. It is not a conforming prospect to a civilized society and ought to be completely eliminated (Imtoual, 2005, p. 9). Similarities and Differences There are several resemblances and differences between the two readings. One major similarity is that both obedience to authority and racism against Muslim women in the Australian print media reflect on the respective two social science disciplines in society. While Milgram (2009) contends of obedience to authority as being an element of some social construct, the same also applies to racism and discrimination against Muslim women in Australia. They are both instances of social and societal construction. Notably, there are major differences between the two articles. First and foremost, Milgram (2009) talks of obedience to authority as being one of the reasons that human beings could carry out atrocities and inhumane acts. Imtoual on the other hand does not talk of authority but rather expounds on Islam and the fact that Muslims in Australia are faced with a climate of hostility and adversity in the Australian print media. He highlights aspects of racism, general negativity and stereotyping against Islam and towards the Muslims. In many instances, he claims that Muslims are always branded as terrorists, barbaric, violent and in a backward religion. In addition the author asserts that there is scarcity of positive representation of Muslim women in the print media (Imtoual, 2005). As a result, this position impacts on the way these Muslims are viewed and positioned in the society as the young Muslim women also view the media with a lot of cynism and mistrust, Milgram (2009) on his part simply argues that discrimination could be as a result of following the commands of the authority, like it was in the case of the Jewish massacre by Adolf Hitler during the Nazi regime. How racism could be eliminated In my opinion, several strategies could be employed in order to eliminate the scourge of racism. First creating awareness about equality and non-discrimination will help in eliminating racism in several communities (Morgan, 2012). This could also start from classrooms so that the role of education of producing a better society is achieved. For instance, it is the role of teachers in the classroom to be social activists (Morgan, 2012). As such they should take note that they employ means such as integration and awareness creation which will help remove racism starting from the classroom. This will have a positive impact on the bigger society since the students will turn out to be better people in the society (Morgan, 2012). Moreover, governments and civil societies must work into ensuring that multiculturalism is addressed and avoid activities that could promote stereotypes and prejudices (Morgan, 2012). Monocultural practices ought to be avoided as they display messages about the inferiority of particular communities and superiority of the others (Morgan, 2012). Appropriate information also ought to be disseminated in a manner that it presents the truth for instance, the Muslim community and not only portraying them as terrorists. Formulation and enforcement of strict laws and sanctions accruing to racism is also an effective tool for eliminating the same (Morgan, 2012). The laws should condemn racism and any related discrimination. In essence, countries must practice a zero tolerance policy towards racism so as to discourage the practice of racism and all other undesirable behaviours (Morgan, 2012). In a nutshell, these practices may have a positive influence on eliminating racism in the society and in Australia at large. Conclusion The essay herein analyses on the two works of Imtoual Ali (2010) titled “Religious Racism And The Media: Representations Of Muslim Women In The Australian Print Media” and secondly a chapter entitled “obedience to authority” and how they reflect the social science disciplines in society. According to Milgram (2009) in his chapter 8 of his book, “Social Psychology”, obedience is a social norm that every community and culture values. For instance, when questions why the My Lai massacre occurred he says that the officers were simply obeying commands. Thus he concludes that atrocities may probably be brought about by conformity to orders and obedience to authority. This could be caused by normative or informational influence. On the other hand, Alia Imtoual expounds on religious racism and how it has been perpetrated by the media. In his article, he contends that Muslims are always branded as terrorists, barbaric, violent and in a backward religion. In addition the author asserts that there is scarcity of positive representation of Muslim women in the print media (Imtoual, 2005). This, which is the biggest form of racism against them. They simultaneously agree that both obedience to authority and racism against Muslim women in the Australian print media reflect on the respective two social science disciplines in society. Interestingly, several strategies could be employed in order to eliminate the scourge of racism. First creating awareness about equality and non-discrimination will help in eliminating racism in several communities. Others are addressing multiculturalism and avoiding activities that could promote stereotypes and prejudices as well as formulating and enforcing of strict laws and sanctions accruing racism (Morgan, 2012). Works Cited Imtoual, A. (2005). Religious Racism and the Media: Representations of Muslim Women in the Australian Print Media. Outskirts: Feminisms along the Edge, 2005, pp.1-13. Milgram, S. (2009). Obedience to authority: An experimental view. New York: Perennial. pp. 272-278 Morgan, R. (2012) Eliminating Racism in the Classroom. D'Youville College: retrieved from http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/papers/racism_morgan.html Read More

This type of influence becomes important when the situation is unclear and ambiguous, or when there is a crisis and only the people under control have the expertise. When there is such a state of conflict, the only natural thing is that the junior partner will follow the commands of the senior partner. Thus in the case of the racism that occurred against the Jews, there could be a high possibility that the killers simply followed the orders and commands of Adolf Hitler because of informational influence (Milgram, 2009).

Thus atrocities may probably be brought about by conformity to orders and obedience to authority. According to Milgram (2009), there are other several reasons why people obey authority. Obedience at times might come just as a matter of conflicting norms. In this respect, people will simply conform to the wrong norms because it becomes difficult to choose which one is the best to follow. Another reason that the author gives fro obeying authority is self-justification (Milgram, 2009). In essence, every time an individual is faced with an important decision or a difficult choice to make, dissonance is produced which results to pressures to reduce it (Milgram, 2009, p. 279). Subsequently, a fully justified decision is what can help the person to make a decision out of the difficult situation (Milgram, 2009, p. 279). At times, this makes the person vulnerable to pressures hence escalating the chosen activity.

Accordingly, the author asserts that people do not necessarily act inhumanely because they possess an evil nature besides their human nature. This evil side is supposed to explode at the smallest scratch on its surface and at the flimsiest excuse (Milgram, 2009, p. 280). Rather, it was initially acceptable to inflict harm upon others when ordered to do so. He sees it as a factor expressing a universal aggressive urge (Milgram, 2009). Conclusively, social pressures can combine in very insidious ways to make reasonable and humane people to act in a very inhumane manner (Milgram, 2009, p. 280). That the human act can be totally fragmented and just one man decided to carry out evil acts while gravely harming others.

On the other hand Alia Imtoual (2005) expounds on religious racism and how it has been perpetrated by the media. His views are impounded in the article, “Religious Racism and the Media: Representations of Muslim Women in the Australian Print Media”. He analysed two daily Australian Newspapers; the Australian together with the Advertiser and argued that Islam and Muslims faced a climate of hostility and adversity in the Australian print media (Imtoual, 2005). He highlights aspects of racism, general negativity and stereotyping against Islam and towards the Muslims.

In many instances, he claims that Muslims are always branded as terrorists, barbaric, violent and in a backward religion. In addition the author asserts that there is scarcity of positive representation of Muslim women in the print media. As a result, this position impacts on the way these Muslims are viewed and positioned in the society as the young Muslim women also view the media with a lot of cynism and mistrust (Imtoual, 2005). This kind of racism has continually strained the relationship between the Australian Muslim community and the media society.

According to Imtoual (2005, p. 1), it is religious racism in Australia that culminates into the high levels of non-representation of the Muslim women in the media. That discrimination in the print media contributes largely practices of religious racism in Australia (Imtoual, 2005, p. 2). In many articles that were reviewed by the author, only ten Muslim women were represented in the 179 total articles. In most instances, there is a negative stereotype that the Muslim woman is just one being dressed in all black and with face veils, subordinated by their own Muslim men and only responsible for domestic chores and family issues (Imtoual, 2005).

According to Imtoual, Muslim women are always represented as being violent and threatening (2005, p. 2).

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