The Difference between Realism and Philosophical Realism - Assignment Example

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS International Relations Customer Name: Lecturer Name: Date: The difference between realism and philosophical realism Realism is defined as the consciousness or acceptance of the actual physical universe in contrast to the abstract awareness. According to realism, the existing and the actual world are considered to have a perceptible complete existence. Realism applies in diverse subject matters such as semantics, modality, mathematics, science, causation, aesthetics and ethics. Realism per se is impractical, since there is no clear-cut choice between being a realist and being a non-realist. Moreover, non-realism and realism can take different forms. Furthermore, some philosophers are selectively realist or non-realist depending on the subject topic. Realism also takes two aspects; the claim about existence aspect of realism is concerned with objects whose existence cannot be argued otherwise such as the existence of the moon, tables and rocks. The second aspect of realism concerns the independence properties of macroscopic objects. On the other hand, philosophical realism beliefs that human reality is very ontologically not dependent on persons’ practices, linguistic, belief and conceptual schemes. The philosophical realism holds it that truth is made of beliefs correspondence to reality. Difference between quantitative and qualitative research methodologies There are several differences between quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. Whereas the qualitative methodology used methods such as structured interviews & observations, reviews for numeric information, the qualitative methodology used methods such as reviews for types of themes, in-depth interviews and focus groups. Moreover, the quantitative method is a fundamentally deductive process to examine pre-specified hypotheses, constructs and concepts that may make up a theory, while the qualitative method is an inductive process for formulating hypotheses or theories. Furthermore, the quantitative methodology uses Statistical tests for analysis while the qualitative alternative does not demand statistical tests. The qualitative alternative is text based, with unstructured or semi-structured response options and is less generalizable while quantitative alternative is Number-based, more generalizable with fixed response options. What is rational choice theory? How is it used in IR research? Rational choice theory is social scientists drive approach, for understanding human behavior. The rational choice theory has gained acceptance and is widely used in several disciplines such as Political Science, sociology, economics, and Anthropology. The theory is founded on the premise that the rational choice approach to this problem is based on the fundamental premise that people make choices that are aimed at helping them best achieve their objectives, when all other factors beyond their control are unconsidered. Simply put, people do their best under prevailing circumstances. Rational choice theory uses utility function to represent preferences. The utility function assigns an arithmetic value to the possible alternatives that the decision maker has to choose. For a preference, relationship to be represented by a utility function the relationship should satisfy completeness and transitivity, the converse is true if the number of alternatives is finite. The rational choice theory begets the rational choice analysis, which begins with the presumption that there is a need to maximize utility by some agents, to choose the most preferential alternative. There is also the consideration of the presence of constraints which necessitates the making of a choice, with no constrains there cannot be a rational decision to be made. The rational choice theory makes the trade-offs between alternatives very explicit. There are simple one-period choice problems and multi-period models. Utility functions serve as translating into mathematical functions the concept of making the preferred choice by the agents, from the available alternatives in constrained optimization. The agents aim at achieving the highest possible value of the utility function, through feasible choice utilizing the mathematical based constrained optimization methods. A decision rules results from the solution to the constrained optimization problem, the rule outlines how the changes in circumstances vary with the utility-maximizing choices. Another construct in the rational choice analysis, is the assumptions concerning the environment where choices are made. Moreover, the consistency of the choices of different agents is an important element of rational choice analysis. Equilibrium occurs when each agent is optimizing subject to constraints. Absence of strong reasons to do otherwise is also an element; the theory assumes that the equilibrium outcomes utilized in the model sufficiently represents the real world occurrences. There are several extensions of rational choice theory. The basic extension considers choice is static and considers choice at a given time. The intertemporal/dynamic model has the leeway for the agent to make choices in the present while planning. Another consideration is the explicit treatment of uncertainty, while the incomplete information is when the agent does not all the information. The strategic behavior is an extension, which occurs when there are few agents. How might a researcher using feminist methodologies bring something distinctive to the arguments in research in IR? Please answer with respect to any one specific approach or sub-field of IR that you have studied, such as security IPE, conflict, world order etc There are varied ways that a researcher using feminist methodologies can bring something distinctive to the arguments in International Relations. Feminist methodologies have profound impacts on the conflict research in international relations. Feminist methodologies are fields of inquiry founded on feminist activism and in feminists' critiques of the standard procedures of international relations. The feminism methodologies use various efforts to include women's concerns and lives in accounts of society in conflict researching, support changes that shall improve women's status and reduce the harms of research to the minimum possible. In the conflict aspect of international relations, researches on feminist methodologies have addressed the utilization of quantitative and qualitative research tools, strategies for developing methodologies that are more inclusive, epistemologies for feminist research, and highlighting the possibilities and problems of research relations. In conflicts, it is believed that women suffer more, therefore feminist methodologies serves as a highlighter to the gender disparities in suffering during the times of conflict. Moreover, feminist methodologies can serve to highlight the challenges faced by women. Women face several problems such as social and economic conditions, therefore feminist research can only be approximate and ideal. There are varied ways of appreciating feminist research where it points out to the policy makers to improve the conditions of women's lives; to more overt or explicit `qualitative' research, that is aimed at involving women. The research write-ups are a voice to decision-makers and others; to critical research aimed which sets out to intervene and question actively and strategically to concern women to speak directly to demand significant change.   Feminist researches introduce a paradigm shift away from the conventional, approved and dominant ways of doing things. In another context, feminist research demands courage, confidence and independent means. There have been challenges to the women league who are perceived to be subordinates, bur feminist research in conflict areas has developed and matured such that sufficient legitimacy has ensued to the probing of women's subordination hence validating the conception of the research.   Furthermore, the research handles the pressures, where women encounter especially in patriarchal societies, such as him, those faced by women in emerge from subordinated positions. Several people tend o make subjective and gender biased opinions when it comes to women, rising especially when there is a conflict. Parties, persons, managers and administrators who do not share feminist research principles with power to impinge may be barriers to the attainment of feminist objectives. Therefore, in times of conflicts, a researcher using feminist methodologies may offer some distinctive items such as revealing and overcoming andocentric biases in research. Other distinctive items that feminist methodologies present include representing human diversity and seeking to create a social change and at the same time, acknowledge the position of the researcher. Concerning revealing Androcentric Biases, feminist methodologies bring something distinctive to the arguments in research in International Relations where both women and men must be engaged as participants, while considering women’s experiences within social hierarchies. Furthermore, the methodology offers an aspect on creating social change. Furthermore, in international relations, the feminist methodology offers a means of representing human diversity, such that not all persons from different places have the same characteristics and attributes. However, this exchange of experiences is not without judgment.  It is not merely research `about' women, but instead is research `for' and `by' women.  That is, whenever women do feminist research they take a step beyond merely hearing each other.     What is 'reflexive' research in IR? Can it yield 'true' results? Reflexive research arises from reflexivity, which is an approach of attending methodically to the context of knowledge construction, from the perspective of the researcher, as the research process progresses and at every step of the research process. In the context of reflexive research, the researcher's position and background influences several constructs such as the perspective of the investigation, what the researcher chooses to investigate, most appropriate methods for the research, most appropriate findings as well as the framing and communication of conclusions. In the 'reflexive' research therefore in international relations, the perceptions of the researcher about one country for example, shapes all the research, experimental, quantitative and qualitative. Reflexivity and reflexive research design follows through a series of steps. The reflexive research design consists of multiple investigators, which can enhance dialogue, and as well result to the lead to the advancement of complementary as well as divergent consideration of a research situation and offer a platform for revealing and contesting the researcher’s often-concealed values, assumptions, beliefs, perspectives. However, it is imperative to understand that multiple investigators in a research and enhancing reflexive dialogue in a research do not always result to consensus and foster reliability.  The next step involves developing a reflexive journal, which is a sort of a diary for entering regular entries by the researcher during the research process. The entries in the journal reflect the researcher’s methodological decisions and the underlying reasons for making the decisions. The journal in most cases is very private and cathartic and the researcher records items such as the logistics of the study, as well as reflection on the occurrences and research developments using the researcher’s values and interests.  The last stage is the reporting of values and beliefs, positions, research perspectives in manuscripts and other publications. In the reposting, it is important that the researcher report to their best the impacts and influences of the researcher’s preconceptions, values, assumptions, beliefs, and position.   In the advancement of reflexive research, reflexivity demands that what the researcher contributed to the construction of meanings throughout the research process is revealed and that there is an appreciation of the impossibility of remaining 'outside of' the researchers subject matter while doing research. Reflexive research is therefore founded on exploring ways through which the researcher’s involvement with a given study influences, acts upon and informs the study. In reflexive research, there exists personal reflexivity and epistemological study. Personal reflexivity engages considering the ways in which the researcher’s wider aims in life, interests, political commitments, social identities, beliefs, values, and experiences have influenced the research. Personal reflexivity also engages analysis on how the research may have influenced the researcher. Epistemological reflexivity concentrates in asking questions about diverse constructs in the research, such as how the defined research question has limited the possible research findings, other possible ways of examining the research question. How the study analysis has resulted to the data and the findings as well as the extent at which adoption of a different methodology could have resulted to a different understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. Therefore, epistemological reflexivity is more about reflecting on the assumptions made in the course of the research, as well as the impacts of the assumptions for the research and research findings in international relations context. Can reflexive research yield true findings? There are controversial opinions concerning in reflexive research can yield true findings. Researchers agree that bias or skewedness in a research study is undesirable. In reflexive research, different researchers tend to approach a research situation with varying positions or perspectives.  Consequently, there shall be varied understanding of the same situation under study. This results to diverse interpretations in terms of trueness. Different understandings of the same scenario can be perceived to mean a reliability problem, while it can also be translated to mean wider and more developed understanding of complex phenomena. How would you organize a research project to analyses the causes of the global financial crisis of 2008-2011? (Note that this is an invitation to explain your answer drawing on any ONE research theory, methodology and methods that you have studied where the key to your answer should be explaining how the theory, methods and methodology are integrated). Research theories, methodologies and methods are integrated modules aimed attaining the research objectives. The connection between research theory, methodology and methods is suggested by their functions. The initial impetus for conducting a research is the search for a theory. The research methodology relies on the stated theory, while the satisfaction of the theory relies on the methodology. This relationship is dialectic where the theory establishes the type of data to be collected while the methodology defines how the data shall be collected. The method is concerned with the research findings affirming or disapproving the theories, therefore the method is used to gather the required data for the theory. There are different research designs which tend to explain the causes of the 2008/2011 financial crises, through developing various theories. Descriptive research theory can be used, to as the question what are the causes of the 2008/2011 financial crises. To answer the question, what are the causes of the 2008/2011 financial crises, the first approach is towards examining the varied theories forwarded by different schools of thought, considering that the actual causes of the crises have been controversial. In theory, the first stage could be the development of the hypothesis. It can be hypothesized that Collateral Dept Obligations (CDO) either directly caused or aggravated the crisis, The methodology is related to the theory through examining various constructs, highlighted by the definition of the Collateralized Debt Obligation (CDO).Collateralized Debt Obligation (CDO) is a security where cash flows produced by a collection of assets are used to repay the interest and the principal. In this structured asset-backed security (ABS) arrangement, it is expected that payments and value be sourced from collection of fixed-income principal assets. CDO securities divide the market into diverse risk tranches categories, where the junior categories are perceived to be more risk hence offer expensive coupon payments, while the level of seniority is considered in principal and interest payments. The method in answering the question the research question, involves understanding of the operations of Collateralized Debt Obligation. In the arrangement, corporate organizations with substantial assets make use of the assets as collateral and sell to investors packages of cash flows. In essence CDO involves special purpose entity (SPE) attaining an assortment or collection of fundamental assets such as corporate loans, or mortgage-backed securities. The special purpose entity then offers different categories of the bonds (CDOs) referred to as tranches; the income generated is then invested in buying the portfolio of principal assets. In the stratified arrangement, the higher CDOs are considered first in the payments sourced from the principal assets, the junior securities are then considered before finally equity securities are then paid. However, in cases of loses, the vice versa is true, where equity securities bear the consequences of the loss followed by the junior securities, while the senior securities are the last to bear a loss. Risks involved are influenced by the fact that the special purpose entity (SPE) of the fundamental assets can transfer credit risk to sole investors and/or other organizations. The issuers of the Collateralized Debt Obligation which in most cases are investment banks benefit twofold, by earning a commission when it issues the CDO and management fees, this has raised contention coupled with the synthetic market where credit default swaps rather than physical assets are used to create payment flows. The disputation is fostered by the fact that the originating institutions have potential to earn substantially from originating and securitizing loans without enduring liability, hence creating CDO without limit to how much could be constructed, and hence the SPE favoring loan volume rather than loan quality. Having created the theory, the methodology is concerned with the analysis of failings in risk management by the concerned financial institutions. Banks and other financial institutions been faced with a myriad of challenges, these challenges have been attributed to poor portfolio risk management and failure to mitigate effects of changes occasioned by circumstances that can affect a bank’s credit rating. Abacus CDO’s where more pronounced, fronted by Goldman Sachs which is accused of creating CDO’s , offered them to investors, after which it bet short against them. Several shortcomings in risk management are identified in the Abacus case where related institutions, Greywolf and Goldman traded hence creating conflict of interest between investors and underwriters who were putting their own deals into CDOs. Furthermore according to the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), investors in the Abacus 2007 CDO’s were misled since Goldman Sachs did not reveal the clear cut operations of the hedge fund manager John Paulson who had participated in picking the underlying portfolio of mortgage-backed securities and was shorting the synthetic Collateralized Debt Obligation. In the same duration, whereas institutional investors lost $1 billion on the deal notwithstanding that Moody’s Investors Service had given it Triple A rating in February 2007, Paulson & Co, which was shorting the transactions, made the same amount in profits. There failure of the institutions is furthermore enhanced by claims that CDO regulations appertaining CDO-default payouts were altered in 2005 to favor short sellers. This highlights the relationship between the theory, the methodology and the method of research. How would you organize a research project to make sense of the meanings embodied in EITHER the significance of the new media in political change in a particular part of the world OR global climate change? (Note that this is an invitation to explain your answer drawing on any ONE research theory, methodology and methods that you have studied where the key to your answer should be explaining how the theory, methods and methodology are integrated). A research project to make sense of the meanings embodied in the new media in political change in the Arabic countries would be structured in a manner that integrates the research theory, the methodology and the methods. New media for communication, which has developed in the recent past and has had political impacts, are the social networks, Bidgoli, (2002). The basic theory is Social network sites (SNSs) are online or web-based services that allow persons, to construct a communal or semi-public profile within a delimited system. The persons in the communal setup may then use their relationship in the site to advance political agenda. Social network is a new media, which has affected in several countries globally, such as in the American elections. However, the impacts of the social media, where more felt in the year 2011, when it resulted to political revolutions in some countries in the Arabic world. In theory, social media are vital towards the communication and construction of an array of users to share a connection and analyze, view, observe and traverse their record of associations and those created by others within the system. Social network sites have started attracting the focus of political and academic researchers fostered by their affordances and ease of reach. The media, which developed and advanced less than decade ago, such as Twitter, YouTube, FaceBook, MySpace and Bebo, have become a favorite of billions of users worldwide, who integrate the Social network sites as part of their daily practices. Political researchers in different areas have examined social network sites to recognize and appreciate the practices, user’s engagement with the sites, implications, culture, and connotation of the sites. Whereas the sites are founded on different temperament and taxonomy, the entire site share a common similarity in affecting the political landscapes since they can be used to dispense political messages. The research would be structured from first developing the hypothesis, the research hypothesis are then related to the successful achievement of the research objectives. The research could be organized from the choice of the theory. An appropriate theory in the subject area is the grounding theory, where the hypothesis is not chosen developed beforehand, but rather bolstered by the identification of the main concepts or keywords in the research title. The research is then centered researcher then sought for background information regarding social networks and political changes in the Arab world. This engaged looking up for the keywords in the indexes to subject encyclopedias, relevant literature, internet sources including search engines, digital libraries, additional lecture notes, reserve readings textbooks, electronic books and journals. This method of sourcing for content is secondary based. The research is structured in the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data through the pragmatic approach of linking up the different research methodologies. The data collection engages different activities such as clarifying the data collection goals. In data collection about the social networks, the nature of the data collected has to agree with the base theory, such that the researcher has to clarify what is to be measured, how it is to be measured, and who is to measure it. The theory is further linked to the methodology in selecting the most appropriate data collection way considering the available resources to perform that particular methodology. The method of presentation is linked to the methodology, and the theory in that the results achieved from the research has to agree or disagree with the theory, while conforming to the means offered by the methodology. Accordingly, to determine the significance of the new media, specifically social network site in political change in an Arab world, the researcher has to choose the most appropriate theory, such as the grounding theory. The theory, then determines the most appropriate research methodology and methods. Can we evaluate experimentally (i.e. using scientific methods) whether one actor or another in IR has more power? Explain your answer. Experimental research in most cases is used in disciplines such as sociology, biology, medicine, chemistry, physics, psychology and other subjects. The experimental method is a collection of research designs, founded on understanding the causal processes is through manipulation and controlled testing. There exist two or more related variables, where there is the dependant and the independent variables. In an experimental research, one or more variables are manipulated to determine their effect on a dependent variable. The experimental method is therefore a systematic and scientific approach where an independent variable determines the dependent variable. International relationships are multidimensional occurrences, which predict the performances of several other disciples such as economic, monetary and social developments. The experimental research is most appropriate in situations where the magnitude of the correlation is great, there exists consistency in a causal relationship and the cause precedes effect, such that time priority in a causal relationship There are several actors in international relationships. On the other hand, experimental research has various definitions, but engages the researcher manipulating one variable then randomizes and controls the rest of the variables. In an experiment, there is a control group, while the subjects are randomly assigned. Experimental research is aimed at predicting phenomenon or some kind of causation. Experiment is a method of testing, with the objective of explaining the nature of reality. In international relations, several issues are political and cannot be said to be controllable hence being unsuitable for testing whether one actor or another has more power in international relations. Considerably, experiments require practical implementations and highly controlled environment. Therefore, in cases where there exists a hypothesis concerning which actor has more power than another one, an experiment. Experiments which attempt to test hypothesis assists to decide between different competing explanations and hypothesis. Essentially a hypothesis is compared versus the opposite or the null hypothesis. In the case of international relations, after a hypothesis has been defined, an experiment can be carried out and the results analyzed to refute, confirm or define the accuracy of the hypotheses. In international relations, the aspect of carrying out an experiment is at times possible but not always practical. If two actors are warring countries, and the aspect of power to be tested is the military power, experiments could mean the countries going to war, to determine the actor with greater military power. International relations are a function of several disciples and occurrences such as economic relationships and agreements, political inclinations and occurrences, perception of individuals, resources and histological occurrences. Experimentation is based on existence of an independent variable and a dependent variable. Most of the factors, which affect international relationships, are also the consequences of other variables. Therefore, it is a challenge to have factors, which are perceived to be dependant. This makes experimentation most inappropriate since there is not independent variables on which to other variables can be gauged on. It is on this regard therefore, that experimentation is considered inappropriate for such a study. Furthermore, experimentation requires testing instruments. In international relationships, nations can be treated as actors; it is hard to get an experiment to test the powers of one nation over another. Furthermore, power itself a relative term, there is no absolute definition of what power is. It is therefore challenging to experiment what cannot be absolutely represented. How would you use either 'life story' interviews or focus groups in research in IR Focus group in research in international relations International relations are a complex undertaking with several actors in play influencing the outcome of the relationships. Focus groups are a form of qualitative research, where respondents are asked in groups about their attitudes, beliefs, opinions and perceptions towards a concept, product, service or even relations. In the focus group arrangement, the respondents are asked questions in an interactive setting, where the participants are allowed to communicate and consult the other group members. In international relations research, focus groups can be used in different ways. One such method is through two-way focus group. In the arrangement, one focus group, concentrates on the discussion of the international relations. At the same time, another focus group observes the other focus group then discusses the observed interactions and conclusion Focus group can also be used in researching international relations through Dueling moderator focus group. In the case, an issue under research about international relations is given to two different teams, which take opposing views about the issue. The research is enhanced through different moderators deliberately taking opposite sides on the issue under discussion. Furthermore, research on international relations can through mini focus groups, where groups of not more than five members participate. Another arrangement is the teleconference or the video conference focus group, where the members discussing an issue on international relations are linked together through telecommunications channels. Other focus groups that can be used to enhance research in international studies are the online focus group, Respondent moderator focus group, Client participant focus groups and the Dual moderator focus group where a moderator ensures that all topics are covered while another moderator ensures that the session progresses smoothly. In international relations, focus groups offer accurate information, and are relatively less costly in comparison to other forms interaction. The development and advancement of video conference based focus groups. Focus groups can also be used to produce data and insights concerning international relations, which could not easily be accessible, in any other non-group setting. In the case, focus group can involve different people from different nationalities interacting and exchanging research material. In an interactive setup, talking and listening to other persons’ verbalized experiences encourages memories, ideas, and experiences in participants. Furthermore, focus groups are used in international relation research through group members discovering a common platform of collaboration and communication. Through focus group, international relations research can be done through group members discovering a common language to explain comparable experiences. In international relations, focus groups enhances research through serving as an important tool for obtaining opinions, responses and feedback about a specific item under study. Therefore, in context focus groups serve in offering important information about the international relations. Focus groups also enable the researcher to study the respondents in a more natural setting, where challenges associated with personalized interviews can be overcame. The focus groups are also imperative in getting results with higher validity, due to increased sample size. References Bidgoli, H. 2002. Electronic commerce: principles and practice. London: Academic Press. Read More