Gender and Ethnic Minority Exclusion within Construction - Dissertation Example

Skilled occupations: Gender and ethnic minority exclusion within construction Introduction Discrimination in various forms based on race, creed, religion, ethnicity, or gender had dominated human societies everywhere throughout the history of mankind. In the United States before the civil war, the blacks were treated as properties and they were not entitled to the basic human rights. In South Africa the apartheid period existed till the 1990s when the blacks were denied the basic civil rights. Now discrimination is illegal in most parts of the world. However there is still the existence of discrimination informally, on the basis of race, gender, or ethnicity. Discrimination existed in social inclusion of a particular community or gender, providing employment to them or sharing public space with them. Samuelson (1980, p. 323) has defined discrimination as the existence of economic difference due to personal features that are not relevant like race, gender or sexual preference. It leads to either differential treatments to different people or conducting practices that affect the target community adversely. Exclusion of a community from participation either in the skilled labour force or social practices or housing has been the most prevalent form of discrimination. In an economy, exclusion is characterized by low wages or poor participation of a particular community in a specific sector. For example even after the abolition of slavery the black laborers received considerable fewer wage and were preferred less than their white counterparts. This also violates the economic laws of demand and supply which tells us that those with a low wage are preferred over the ones with high a wage rate. Becker tried to explain this by the theory that the firm is prejudiced against a particular race or gender. An employer may prefer a European worker over a Latino worker. He may be willing to pay a higher wage for his preference. This he called a taste for discrimination. The consequence of economic discrimination is lingering and can persist for a longer period of time, beyond the actual period it occurred. As a result of racial discrimination the lives and conditions of the minority workers suffer. They have a low employment rate and poor wage. Therefore they cannot afford high education and their children go to poor schools. They have to also forego high-skilled trainings for their jobs. As a result their children acquire low skill set and get low paying jobs. In this way the cycle of segregation of jobs is prolonged (Samuelson, 1980). One particular industry that employs a number of skilled labors in its various domain of operation is the construction industry. It has a high demand for educated professionals in various fields of operations like architects, managers, town planners, surveyors, and types of individual operators like plumber and electrician etc. there is very little conclusive data about the participation of the ethnic minors in the skilled operations. Most of the professional bodies in construction business never estimated the magnitude of ethnic minors or women in their skilled labour force. However one data suggests that only 2% of the professional jobs are carried out by ethnic minors in United Kingdom (Gale, Davidson, 2006, p. 196). Many people belonging to the minor communities feel dissatisfied with their progress in the jobs. There growth to higher designations is often restricted because of their ethnicity or gender. There have been various discussions regarding the presence of differentiation based on ethnicity, gender, or race. Various scholars have propped different remedies for the problem. Some of them have proposed to recognize the grounds of discrimination and institutionalize them. They have reasoned that this will enable the minor communities with more opportunities. It will also give the minorities more freedom for expression and exercise their rights. However there still remains the problem of finding a proper representative and defining and recognizing the discrimination before institutionalizing them (Uguris, 2004, p. 24). Such discrimination in employment can be found in the construction industry especially in the skilled jobs associated with the industry. The paper attempts to study the aspects of gender and ethnic discrimination prevailing in the construction industry. Gender and Ethnic Discrimination: Construction Industry Facts and Figures The construction industry is a significant sector for the employment and income generation of any country. In United Kingdom the industry provides employment to around 1.4 million people. It also contributes to 10% of the GNP. But the figures are miserable for women employees in UK in the construction industry. The women contribute about 49% to the labour force of United Kingdom. But they constitute just 9% to the entire labour force employed in the construction industry. The part by part figures of this small number of women participating in the construction industry reveal some further facts. A tenth of all these women working in the construction industry are in design and management and a hundredth works as tradesperson. A vast majority, about 84% work in the secretariat of the construction companies. The other fractions are 2% as sole traders and 4% as micro enterprises. (Where Have All the Women Gone?, n.d) The data shows that majority of the women employed in the construction industry work from office (Byrne, Clarke, & Meer, 2005). Similar is the case for racial discrimination. In USA in 1991 only 32700 Afro-American people worked in the construction industry out of the total 4.7 million people employed. 1n 1977 out of the total revenue of $73.87 churned out by the construction industry, the black construction firms accounted for a mere $758 million. Studies carried out in Atlanta, Chicago, San Francisco, Seattle and elsewhere have confirmed the existence of wide racial discrimination in the construction industry. (A Croson to Bear, 1992) There has been increased participation of the ethnically minor groups and women in the entire labour force. This can be accounted to the fact that there has been an increase in consciousness regarding this and policy changes to encourage their participation. The European Union has undertaken policy to overcome this segregation of the labour market. However the representation of the aforementioned groups in the skilled construction group has been dismal. More or less in every part of Europe this discrimination exists irrespective of the nature or structure of the construction industry. The incidence of such discrimination can be experience in the deregulated industry Italy and Spain as well as the regulated and training oriented industries of England and Denmark. The lack of participation can be attributed to a pack of opportunities for training on the job and informal recruitment policies and a lack of implementing the equal opportunity philosophy (Byrne, Clarke, & Meer, 2005). Issues and Problems Faced By Ethnic Minors and Women in the Construction Industry In the construction industry there is a dominance of the white employers in England. Reports have suggested the need for recruiting more ethnic minors in this sector. Better employment practices and less discrimination would lead to more ethnic minors in higher positions. Similar is the story for gender discrimination. In this sector about 90% of the professionals were male in 1990. In jobs like machine operation or craftsmen the employment was highest. In higher positions like managers or in administration male representation was two third. Likewise trends were prevalent in Scotland and Wales. The participation of minors is highly skewed suggesting discrimination all though there is a need for more skilled labor in the construction industry. (Gale, & Davidson, 2006, pp. 71-74) The United Kingdom construction industry, one of the most significant employers of skilled labor had faced a shortage of supply in skilled labour. The demand for skilled labour in 2007 was 234,000. Women and ethnic minors who have so long been shunned from the industry provide a rich pool of skilled labour that remains yet to be utilized and can lead to high growth for the industry. Different types of discrimination are faced by the ethnic minors in this sector. They receive a lower wage than their European counterparts of the same grade. Sometimes they are denied cushy jobs or posts on the ground of lack of experience despite being in the industry for twenty years. Women employees in the construction industry at a senior level have complained of prejudiced managers. In a male dominated industry the people are biased against working under a woman. The women civil engineers complain of denial of access to on site jobs. The reasons cited are that the onsite jobs are too difficult and hazardous for them. According to a study 66% of the women interviewed had complained of facing sexism in their office. However the public has a preference for women tradesperson. They feel more threatened by male tradesperson. They also have a perception that women are more careful and tidy in their work. (Gale, & Davidson, 2006, pp. 71-74) In spite of this perception the growth of female workers in the construction industry had been slow. While in 1980s, only 9% of the workers were female, till 2000 the workforce participation is 10%. In 2010 the number of women participating is only 12%. The role of women in the skilled jobs has increased by a dismal 1% in the last 3 years. (Dowding, n.d.) Although there was a surge in the number women entrants in the construction industry during 1990 and they have penetrated into all sorts of jobs from receptionists to contract managers. But even today the number of women construction managers is just a 4% of the total. (Where Have All the Women Gone?, n.d) it is partly because of the way the industry is perceived and partly because the recruiters apprehension towards including women in their labour force. The image dictates that the industry requires manual strength and resistance towards hard conditions. The male recruiters fear that female colleagues will lead to distraction and sexual allegations that will disrupt the work culture. (Gurjao, 2006) The people belonging to the minor groups not only face trouble in finding recruitment in the construction industries but also in getting promotion. There is a huge attrition rate of the minor communities. Many women were stagnant at a mid level managerial position in jobs like town planning and surveyors. They were overtaken by their junior male counterparts. Most of the women who are employed in the skilled jobs of the construction industry belong to the administration, secretariat or other peripheral support jobs. A common problem faced by them is a lack of recognition. The perception is that they have very little contribution to the actual construction process. Many times the women find employment because of the firms’ decision to promote their image as the employer of a certain number of women (Gale & Davidson, 2006, pp. 71-74). About 55% of the construction companies have reported that they had to alter their work hours and practices to suit the need of their women recruits. Such thoughts have also been mirrored by the women employees. 47% of the women are willing to leave their jobs if their employer fails to meet their need for flexible working hours because of their family commitments. There are a number of issues faced by women entering the construction business. A study conducted a number of female employees in the construction industry pointed out some of these issues. The women pointed out that the long and non-flexible hours of working is a problem for them. Advantageous working hours and working near the home acts as a catalyst for women employment in any sector. The private sector construction business has long and unregulated working hours which becomes problematic for women having family commitments. They have also pointed out the male dominated culture that exists in the industry acting as a deterrent for them to enter the industry. (Where Have All the Women Gone?, n.d) In the United States the history of the industry shows a consistent discrimination and lack of participation by the black is the construction industry. Before 1960 the blacks were barred from participating in the unions. During 1978 to 1983 the black run construction enterprises in Richmond received only 0.67% of the construction contracts there population was half the entire population. Therefore they traditionally lack the network required for getting employment as apprentices and contracts in a sector characterized by informal recruitment. Experience is a major requirement in this sector. But insufficient performance records have restricted the Afro-Americans from getting new contractors. Sometimes contracts are awarded to the black contractors to meet the quota of employment. The public sector projects carry with them a reservation for minimum black employment. Therefore the black participation is more in public sector projects than the private projects. The black contractors also face a difficulty in obtaining insurance or bonds. There applications are typically rejected citing a lack of previous records or small size of the firm. Even when they do get insurance they have to pay a higher premium than the white contractors. In case of bank loans they have to show a cent percent collateral. They also have to face other hazards like obtaining raw materials at a competitive price. All these act as barriers for the ethnic minors to continue their operation in the long run. In an industry characterized by entrepreneurial jobs and contracts, the minor communities often find it hard to procure jobs especially the private sector ones. After the Richmond verdict many states have suspended their reservation policies. This had led to considerable fall in the black participation in the construction industry. (A Croson to Bear, 1992) In positions of authority the participation of the people belonging to minor communities is very less. Therefore the young people cannot find a ‘role model ‘. Motivation is an important factor in any job and outstanding achievements by someone can push someone else to achieve better. Especially in an industry characterized by discrimination and abuse a role model can help a person to face the challenges. The construction industry has am inherent team culture. Sometimes for people belonging to ethnic minorities or women participation in celebration like drinking becomes a problem. Integration into this subculture is crucial for the working environment of the construction industry and shaped the perception of the colleagues about a worker. Staying away from this subculture may lead to their exclusion from the team in their work place. In some cases the minor people have to forego their culture in order to interact with the people and appear like them. In some cases the minor people are apprehensive of revealing their minor identities. An example is when the black salesman prefers conducting business over phone before a matured stage of the deal has been reached. Difference also occurs in the kind of task that is handed out to the ethnic minor people. While the indoor jobs are managed by the whites, the blacks and other ethnic communities are typically given jobs in the toilets and other refurbishing areas (Gale, & Davidson, 2006, pp.198-199). Construction industry, Problem of Skill labour and Eagerness of the Minorities to join the Industry Construction industry is facing a shortage of skilled labors. There is a huge demand for new talents to enter the industry. Figures suggest that between 2009 and 2013 the demand for skilled labour in this sector will be around 10,000. Moreover the population of the country is growing an ageing. A 16% increase of the population yields only a 14% rise in the labour force. In the construction industry 20% of the skilled labour force will reach their age of retirement in just 10 years. As a result there will be a huge rise in the demand for skilled labour in the future. As a result there is a need for more participation from the women and the ethnic minorities who were so far discriminated against. In United Kingdom just 5% of the skilled laborers of the construction industry are women. It portrays a poor picture for a sector, a large number of whose clients are women. Moreover the women labor force provides a huge reservoir of unexploited resources. (Dowding, n.d.) Requirement for Training and Apprenticeship and the Interest of the Minor Communities towards Construction Industry Construction industry demands relevant experience before a job can be obtained. Without the skill it is difficult to enter the industry. All over Europe the job requires a lot of skill and relevant training. Therefore it requires higher education to get in to this sector. However many people who are training or going for further education remain unemployed. This is the case for maximum of the students from an ethnic background. Young people from the ethnic communities find it more difficult to get an apprenticeship. They also have a less chance of getting a job upon the completion of their apprenticeship (Apprenticeship: a key route to skill, 5th Report of session 2006-07, 2007, p. 188). According to Waldinger, the black people made slower progress in the construction industry than the Hispanic people. This is because the black people sought lower apprenticeship in this sector than the Hispanic people. The Asian workers, who are mainly employed as electrician, have complained of racism and exclusion from the society. They have also problem staying within the professional network essential for getting jobs (Moccio, 2009, p.133). In spite of a lack of representation of the minorities in the construction industry there is an interest among them to find employment in this sector. The numbers of black and other ethnic minor people enrolling in colleges and universities that teach in construction related subjects are plenty. Estimates suggest that 11.2% of the students who enrolled for civil engineering and 12.5% who enrolled for architecture in 1997 in UK were from ethnically minor communities. Similar enthusiasm had also been seen in women. Brian Howells, who conducts training in construction industry, noted that a fifth of the students are women. According to him, majority of these women are interested in entrepreneurial jobs at the end of the course. In 2002-03 the number of female students enrolling for higher degrees in construction industry was 2291 (Gurjao, 2006). In UK, 11% of the students enrolling for professional training in construction were women. A group of women were interviewed on their reason to choose the construction industry. While a 37% said that they have an interest towards building and engineering, 20% said that they found it a good careers prospect. Similarly 8% said that salary drew them towards the industry while for another 7% it was friends or family who were working in the industry. A significant 28% of the women said that they were unhappy with their jobs. Almost 67% of the women have been in the industry for over 2 years. However the study focused that there was still a lack of consciousness among the female students in schools and colleges. They still perceive the industry as dominated by the men (Hill McGlynn & Associates, n.d.) Conclusion Several discussions have been made regarding the inclusion of the ethnic minors and women to the skilled labour force of the construction industries. A study had shown that 17% of the companies are enthusiastic to recruit female workers. 55% of these companies have made suitable changes in their working hours to suit the needs of these employees. However there are 79% more who do not have any specific agendas for addressing the sex ratio imbalance in their labour force. A vital logic is that these companies value the quality of labour and they would not hesitate to a suitably skilled female worker. awareness among the students in schools and colleges needs to be developed to change their perception and attract them to the industry. A second agenda in the list of the construction companies must be the retention of these female employees in the workforce. The triple burden faced by the women in managing their job, household and child rearing must be acknowledged. Suitable changes in the working hours and leaves must be granted. It is essential for the employers to develop and retain the skilled labors from the minor communities to meet the huge requirement for skill that they have. (Hill McGlynn & Associates, n.d.). The return of female workers after a maternity break should be allowed. (Worrall et. al. n.d.) The organization must promote their image as more friendly towards the minor communities. For this purpose their ‘actions must speak for themselves’. More research to understand the key issues of the minorities must be done. Behavior of the entire organization along with the administration must change to accommodate the minor communities. The diverse pool of human capital should contribute more to the development of the organization and that must be appropriately valued. A sense of belonging for all the employees must be inculcated among all the employees. Recruiting the young people from the ethnical minorities and women labour force for apprenticeship will help the process. Apprenticeship not only helps in transferring the skills of the jobs through practical experience, but it also hones a love for the craft, industry, and organization at a very early age. It is essential to create a long term human capital for any industry. (Dowding, n.d.) Participation of the government in the creation of the skilled labour pool for the construction industry should also be looked into. The government can help to meet the shortage of skilled labor and promote the cause of the ethnic societies simultaneously. They can establish training institutes and give practical training to the students. This will also provide apprentices for the construction companies operating on a small scale. The government of any country gives the maximum business to the construction industries. They can lay down terms and conditions for employing and providing training to more people from the minorities. The Minority Business Utilization Plan of 1983 by the City Council of Richmond, Virginia made it mandatory to employ at least 30% contractors from the black and ethnic minor communities for any project.(Home, 1992, p-94) In UK efforts like Construction Industry Trust for Youth (CITY), Construction Modern Apprenticeship, Construction Industry Training Board (CITB), Construction Industry Council Diversity Toolkit, Construction Industry Council Equal Opportunities Task Force have worked considerably on reducing job segregation based on race or sex. Another such attempt is the Swansea Council’s Construction Connection Program that gives basic trainings in construction to young boys and girls in the age group 16 to 17. (Brennan, n.d.) The participation of society and the government can together ensure equal opportunities for the women and ethnic minors in the construction industry. 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