Racial Discrimination against African Americans - Term Paper Example

Racial Discrimination against African – Americans (blacks) – The subsequent impact on Educational Progress, Employment, Behavioral Development and Attitudes Abstract: This paper starts with a formal introduction to racial discrimination against African – Americans by majority white population. It is worthwhile to mention that discussion on biased attitude against minority blacks has remained a constant part of American society. Indeed, the previous theorists and psychologists such as Cross and Helms (1995) followed by Lee, Wong et al and Whatley et al (2003) have contributed to literature by conducting research on adverse psychological consequences of ethnic discrimination against blacks. The author, therefore, has decided to review existing literature to study how racial discrimination may impact on academic progress, cognitive and behavioral development, workplace attitudes, and inter – organizational conflicts. The author will also throw light over five - stage Cross model of Cognitive Development to let readers understand how participants tend to internalize racial or ethnic identities. In fact, this would enable readers to understand subsequent review of current literature. Literature Review Introduction: The rational discrimination has become a growing debate in last few decades in American society. Indeed, the biased and discriminatory attitude of majority whites against African – Americans, Hispanics and Asians has influential relationship with behavioral problems, academic performance and success, real-life negative attitudes and perceptions against majority white population. It is worthwhile to mention that this topic is not chosen to criticize every single white because of the fact every person is not biased against fellow Americans. Rather, the paper is an attempt to reveal the general discriminatory attitude against minority ethnic groups and its negative consequences in the light of contributions of previous theorists, researchers and psychologists who studied the adverse or positive impact on performances of ethnic groups. The author, therefore, has chosen African – Americans as a minority group and will review the existing literature about consequences of racial discrimination at educational institutions, in corporate world and on behavioral development against people who belong to above mentioned ethnic community. It should also be pointed out that discrimination, against minority African – Africans, across USA has reduced over recent years in comparison to past. The most evident example is selection of Barack Obama as USA’s president who belongs to a minority group. For instance, it is justified to argue that discrimination still exists on a relatively bigger scale, which was studied by previous researchers in mentioned areas. Review: Lee (2003) has pointed out the terms such as ‘Culturally disadvantaged’ and ‘Culturally Deprived’ remained an inevitable part of American society. These terms, indeed, used to pinpoint cultural weaknesses or shortcomings among Blacks, Hispanics or Asian while the traditional white culture was viewed as superior. In addition, another term known as ‘Cultural Deficits’ used to refer that ‘non-whites do not have meaningful culture’. Hence, the usage of above terminologies is the evidence of grass root racial discrimination in an open American society, where it is claimed that every single person has freedom of expression, choice, basic rights, social and emotional equality, employment similar opportunities for growth and advancement in corporate world. (Lee, 2003) Having discussed the above mentioned terminologies, the writer will now discuss the core variables that are widely used to assess and analyze personality of participants. Indeed, Whatley et al (2003) have presented that there are ‘psychological variables’ for example ‘cultural’ norms, standards, traditions and values, ‘self -concept’, societal and ‘ethnic / racial status. For instance, race or ethnicity could also be used as an alternative during a research project. In addition, one may not guarantee about the results from aforementioned because the research depends upon the self-identification of participants from any specific racial or ethnic minority group. It should also be emphasized that results about personality assessment obtained after analysis of findings vary because of strong identification. (Whatley et al, 2003) In addition to above mentioned psychological variables, the researcher would like to review the Cross model named after Cross (1995), which has been used by previous researchers to study ‘cognitive (thinking) development and the attitudes and behaviors produced because of racial or ethnic identity. Cross’s (1995) model comprises of total five stages popularly known as “pre – encounter (stage 1), encounter (stage 2), immersion and emersion (stage 3), internalization (stage 4) and internalization – commitment (stage 5)”. During the first stage, the majority group (let say whites) people have certain negative perceptions and schemas about African – Americans who are viewed as absolute rivals and opponents. In other words, presence of blacks is considered as implausible, shame and dishonor because of racial extremism, which has been developed due to several misconceptions, misleading or lack of adequate knowledge and information. During the next stage, a person may encounter with any crucial ‘racial incident or racist event that the participant tends to personalize after exposure to new knowledge, opinions and idea sharing from external world. Indeed, the person may be perturbed, alarmed and confounded after these developments that in turn lead to mental strain and ‘depression’. Obviously, the internal state of disgust, disappointment and anger stimulate eagerness to maximize one’s knowledge over these race issues and matters. The third stage is known as the climax of entire model because now participants are ignited, inclined towards racial identification and penchant to enter racial world of Blacks where they are exposed to “literature, film, press, radio, persons, and business organizations”. Emersion, on the other hand, refers to the fact that racial identity is developed (for example - I am a Black) after which anger, shame and guilt among people declines. Indeed, they become more controlled and internalize the outcome that they are Blacks and would remain Blacks. In the next stage, basically belonging needs (with a specific ethnic group) are fulfilled that provides internal satisfaction, protection as well as intrinsic motivation to become dynamic personnel in external world besides the roles played in a Black society. This could also be called as ‘behavioral and ideological internalization’ because this stage involves complete internalization of one’s racial identity. The final and fifth stage involves generalization of sustainable commitment with one’s culture, environment, traditions, norms, values and taboos. (Whatley et al, 2003) summarized (Cross, 1995), (Helms, 1995) In short, the above model provides us an insight over the actual internal stages that a person goes through in shaping its attitudes, cognitions and behaviors after racial identification and discrimination. Employment Discrimination and Subsequent Behavioral Problems: Darity and Mason (1998) pointed out that racial discrimination has widely been observed in corporate environment where white strategic planners and employers intentionally negate candidates from African – American community. For instance, the applicants are discriminated during hiring and selection, pay scale, promotion, fringe benefits, vacations, additional work load and denial of new opportunities in a corporate setting. The racial discrimination mainly because of superiority complex among majority group participants adversely impacts the work - related performance and attitude of workers. In simple words, the workers tend to consider this treatment as personal offensive and become perturbed from within. As a result, the performance, participation in business meetings and workplace contributions reduce because of absence of proper communication, coordination and collaboration among majority and minority group employees. It should also be noted previous research works have confirmed the lack of morale, confidence, trust factor and we-feeling or cohesion (both socio – emotional and instrumental) among African – Americans and whites. It is justified to argue that performance reduces due to poor communication that not only create conflicts but also aggravate the chances of building cordial relationships in future. (Darity and Mason, 1998) In addition, the ethnic workers’ have proven to be lower in affective and normative commitment with any business firm where they encounter racial or ethnic discrimination and denial of opportunities. Glass ceiling has become a much alarming issue because it is an invisible barrier that constricts ethnic groups and women to advance within an organizational setting. Indeed, the above mentioned creates anti – employer and anti- white feelings that later lead to societal conflicts and disputes. For example, the income of white workers was recorded in between $50,000 – 55,000 per annum, whereas African - Americans at similar managerial positions and jobs earned between $45,000 – 49,000 in late 1990s. This is the open evidence of workplace discrimination that has to be eradicated to restore societal peace and certainty. Darity and Mason (1998) discussed that Stereotyping (exaggerated and oversimplified image about abilities, skills, knowledge and attributes of blacks) has also been a vital issue because workplace stereotypes also sabotage internal culture, mingling, harmony, peace and unity. For instance, the responsible behavior in this regard would prevent the chances of undesirable outcomes such as workplace combats, ridiculing and bullying among majority and minority black groups. Impact on Educational Progress and Performance: Wong et al (2003) has summarised the facts presented by (Essed, 1990; Phelan, Davidson, & Yu, 1994) that a participant’s first - hand experiences on racial biasness and discrimination is, perhaps, one of the major reasons that adversely impacts academic performance at one’s educational institutions. But, it should not be forgotten that every participant is not negatively impacted by discrimination of groups because of intrinsic strengths and stronger will power. In addition, the racial discrimination is most likely to affect the probability of undesirable behaviors, attitudes and results rather being a direct contributor towards every negative instance. Taking into account the above, the researcher would now like to provide some major arguments in favor of this explanation. The author would like to highlight that mutual understanding between or among students and teachers is a driving force that enhances the probability of educational accomplishments. Absence of this cohesion between the two parties because of racial and color differences would obviously distract each other from one’s original objectives (teaching and studying). Hence, Wong et al (2003) presenting the research work of (Eccles, 1993; Goodenow & Grady, 1993; Wentzel, 1997) has highlighted that any disrespect, jealousy or mistreatment by teachers and educationists towards African – American students has resulted in negative attitudes and responses. Wong et al (2003) pointed out that previous researches have revealed that black college students were disinclined to actively contribute in class and extra-curricular activities, to finish and submit assignments on due dates, to do exceptionally well in quizzes and papers, to regularly attend classes and to disprove that any accusations and criticisms upon their abilities, skills and qualities. In addition, the students even hated valuing their educational institutions because of racism, subsequent bantering, name - calling physical torture and other crucial events. Crocker et al (1998) highlighted the fact that ethnic discrimination sabotages the “in-group” feeling because of whites’ overall reluctance to accept African – Americans as an inevitable part of society. Needless to mention that blacks are discriminated that force them to internalize they are below societal standards and would never be respected or honored because of racism. Wong et al (2003) has endorsed the facts presented by Crocker et al (1998) and drawn attention towards the most decisive consequence of racial discrimination as demonstrated from previous research works. The previous researcher has pointed out that people from African – American ethnic group tend to share with their families, relatives, friends, peers and co-workers these critical racial events happened at educational institutions, shopping plazas, business workplace and white neighborhoods. For instance, they would like to communicate the injustice, unfair attitude and illegitimate practices of white community because of their membership and belonging to a specific minority group. As a result, this results in enhancement of feelings of anger and devaluation, which is viewed as dishonoring entire black community due to their dark color. Nevertheless, the end result is disputes and baseless combats among members of two groups that lead to societal unrest and harmony. Whites, in turn, become reluctant to visit black neighborhoods and so as blacks to enter in white-majority areas because of nothing but perceived threats and life security concerns. Behavioral Problems: As far as behavioral problems are concerned, Wong et al (2003) exampled (Fleming & Offord, 1991; Gibbs, 1990; Dillard & Perrin, 1980) and pointed out that misconduct and negative behavior of primary school teachers with African – American kids lead to creation of extremely negative feelings. In later years, this discrimination against blacks and preference to whites compels minority group students to rebel and retaliate against this unjust attitude and behavior. Obviously, the young but despondent hearts who have now become adults, later internalize their subordination, which ravages their ‘self – esteem, self – efficacy, psychological resiliency’, cognitive, intellectual and behavioral development. Consequently, race and ethnicity hampers mental broadmindedness of African – Americans, thereby leading to a never ending spiral of hatred, mischievousness and malice. References: Whatley, Richard, James Allen and Richard Dana (2003). Racial Identity and the MMPI in African- American Male College Students. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, Vol 9(4), pp. 345-353 Helms, Janet (1995). An update of Helm’s White and People of Color racial Identity Models. Racial and Ethnic Identity Development, pp. 181-198 Available at http://ocmche.org/conferences/helms1995.pdf Darity, William and Patrick Mason (1998). Evidence on Discrimination in Employment: Codes of Color, Codes of Gender. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 63-90 Available at http://econ2.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ321/Orazem/darity_employment-disc.pdf Wong, Carol, Arnold Sameroff and Jacquelynne Eccles (2003) The Influence of Ethnic Discrimination and Ethnic Identification on African American Adolescents’ School and Socioemotional Adjustment. Journal of Personality, 71(6), pp. 1198-1234 Available at http://www2.uni-jena.de/svw/igc/studies/ss03/wong_eccles_samerhoff.pdf Lee, Carol (2003) “Why We Need to Re-Think Race and Ethnicity in Educational Research” Educational Researcher, Vol. 32, No. 5, pp. 3–5 Available at http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/Journals_and_Publications/Journals/Educational_Researcher/3205/3205_Lee.pdf Crocker, J., Major, B., & C. Steele (1998). Social Stigma. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske & G. Lindzey (Eds.) The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill Read More