The Implications of the Evaluation on the Policing of Diverse Communities - Term Paper Example

POLICING DIVERSITY Introduction Diversity refers to the socially constructed characteristics by which individuals and groups define themselves,and are defined by others. Diversity pertains not only to gender, race and ethnicity, but also includes “age, class, cultural beliefs, values and practices, language, marital status, nationality, physical ability, religion and sexual orientation” (Kazarian et al, 2007: 4). Police officers perform several types of socially indispensable functions for a diverse public, due to which contacty between the public and the police is considerable. Diversity is a challenging and changing concept, and considerations of diversity fuel the manner in which police interact with members of the public. The functions of police officers include preserving the peace, preventing crime, assisting crime victims, apprehending and charging offenders, executing warrants, referring people to appropriate community supports and services, and providing public education. In their daily duties, police encounter individuals from a variety of cultural groups, languages, genders, ages, socio-economic classes, religions, sexual orientations, physical and mental abilities and with different levels of psychological well-being. This diversity enforces a policing structure and function that is diversity-oriented and focuses on multiculturalism, restorative justice, community orientation, human rights and freedom. Most police personnel, excluding a minority, view the dimension of diversity in policing positively, as evidence of their challenging and rewarding police lifestyle (Kazarian et al, 2007: 4, 17). It is claimed that issues of race have dominated the police diversity agenda, and alternative dimensions of diversity such as gender, age, religion or sexual orientation have been given little consideration. The purpose of this paper is to critically evaluate this claim, and examine the implications of the evaluation on the policing of diverse communities. Discussion Policing diversity refers to the increasingly difficult task that is apparently facing the police service in its initiatives to meet the various demands of a multi-faceted society. Earlier, the police played a neutral, inert role in the situation in which social racism was a given problem. The police responded by treating members of the public: whether victims, witnesses or suspects, equally and in a uniform manner. The most significant aspect of the reconceptualization of the police role in recent times, has been an emphasis on policing as an explicitly anti-racist activity, by which the problem of racism is challenged by policing in a proactive interventionary role. The Association of Chief Police Officers (2000: 3), in its guide to combating hate crime describes the implications of anti-racism as the requirement for every member of the police force to subscribe to a code of active conduct which requires reaching beyond the limitations of law, to confront prejudice outside the police service and eliminate prejudice within the service. Models help to gain insights into policing diversity, and lay down guidelines for the implementation of the theoretical concepts. Models of Police-Community Relations and Community Policing The Race Relations model and the Policing Diversity model are two different approaches in terms of relations of the police to society, the way in which racism within the service is conceptualized, the role of the police in tackling racism, and the specific roles of police leaders. The community oriented policing model is a democratic policing theory which is based on achieving sound policing behaviours towards benefit to society. In the Race Relations model the external problem is caused by communities that are problematic, or which present unusual or difficult challenges to the police. The internal problem is located in a minority of distinctly racist staff, who should be removed from service or disciplined once identified. In this model the role of police in relation to racism is as passive and neutral enforcers of the law. The role of police leader is to ensure that the police staff do not behave in an unacceptable manner, and to prevent any subcultural patterns from developing within the organization (Rowe, 2004: 142). In the Policing Diversity model the external problem is located in social, political and economic structures that discriminate against minority ethnic groups, and socio-ideological beliefs and stereotypes prevalent about them. The internal problem is located in the involuntary prejudices and attitudes of all staff which need to be confronted; training and the monitoring of performance indicators used to fuel change. In this model the role of policing in relation to racism is pro-active and interventionist. The role of police leader is to encourage staff to develop attitudes and behaviour that confront racism and other unacceptable behaviour; and to encourage a culture in which stereotypical attitudes and behaviour within police organizations can be effectively challenged (Rowe, 2004: 142). It is important to recognize that the two models above are simplified outlines, and should be regarded as speculative hypotheses, rather than a wholesale change on ground. The two approaches are different with regard to the relations of the police to society, the way in which racism within the service is conceptualized, the role of the police in dealing with racism, and the specific roles of police leaders. It is evident from the above models of police-community relations, that the policing diversity model requires greater commitment and activity of police leaders who have a wider role to play. This is especially significant taking into account the fact that many of the factors of the policing diversity model require a complete transformation of the working environment such that “unacceptable behaviour” can be challenged (Rowe, 2004: 143). The Community Oriented Policing model as identified by Ponsaers (2001: 490) is found to have a system in which decision making is decentralized, division of labour is generalized, the function is cause oriented and preventive in nature, the open system of interaction with the environment is proactive in nature, innovation is encouraged and the democratic and bottom-upward manner of decision making allows lower level personnel in the hierarchy adequate discretion to conduct investigations with professional freedom, and the policing is service oriented. Further, in this model law enforcement is seen as one of the means of policing, there is strong emphasis on external accountability, partnerships and interactions with the community are encouraged for the benefit of the community as well as the police force, societal mechanisms are used for undertaking crime investigations, and the re-inforcement of informal social control and situational crime prevention. For achieving the development of a police force which manifests no discrimination on any grounds, while carrying out its crime control duties, it is of fundamental importance that the police service should have personnel from the minority communities, with no discrimination against any group. This cultural diversity helps the police in working with diverse communities. The Importance of Cultural Diversity Within the Police Service Cultural diversity in policing refers to a mixed racial, ethnic, age, gender and religious composition in the service. This is an important goal to strive for, in order to eliminate racism. It has been suggested by Rowe (2004: 49) that one of the reasons for racism being a part of the police force is that generally recruitment into the police service has been mainly from the working class, and women and minorities have been largely under-represented. This restriction of entrance to particular sections of society through the requirement for applicants to meet the physical standards of white males, is known as institutionalized racism (Dantzker, 1999: 299). The lack of diversity among those recruited in the service isolates the personnel from the society at large, reflects the prejudices predominant in the section of society from where they are drawn, and results in a police culture characterized by racist stereotyping. Further, the occupational culture of the police service which stresses loyalty to colleagues and team membership, can stop the police personnel from challenging racism in team members. Siegel & Senna (2005: 208) reiterate that the experience of becoming a police officer, the nature of the job itself causes most officers to group together in a police subculture, with the inherent characteristics of clannishness, cynicism, secrecy and insulation from the rest of society. Moreover, they share a perception of danger which unifies them as a group, and separates them from the chief source of danger, the public, which further demarcates the boundaries of a police subculture. With contemporary changes due to diversity brought about in police departments, currently police personnel seek public support through community police models and are redefining the police role towards community outreach. Where there is very little cultural diversity in the police service, the personnel are isolated from the society at large, and practise discrimination against racial and ethnic minorities. They cannot form mutually beneficial ties with the community, which also includes diverse communities with respect to age, gender, social class, race/ ethnicity and wealth. The Policing of Diverse Communities in Relation to Age, Sex, Social Class, Race/ Ethnicity Discrimination by the police on the basis of race and ethnicity are seen to be commonly prevalent, which is revealed by empirical evidence relating to policing diversity. However, discrimination is not restricted to race alone, since other factors such as age, gender, social class and sexual orientation also form the basis for discrimination. Among the population of a place, there are demographic patterns regarding those who are stopped by the police while travelling by car. However, patterns of car ownership play a part in exposure to risk of car stops. Young people have a much higher risk of being stopped, white people face lower risks than members of any minority ethnic groups, among whom black people have the highest risk, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis. If only those households which owned a vehicle were examined, the gap between minorities and whites became wider. The differences between car users who were white on the one hand and black, Pakistani and Bangladeshi on the other hand, is statitistically significant as is the difference between Indian and black car users. The chances of being stopped in a car, indicate cumulative factors. In a survery conducted in 1999-2000 in London, it was found that of young male respondents under 30, minority ethnic groups had a 34% chance of being stopped, while the risks for comparable white young men was 29%. For other car users, the risk was only 12%. Whilst these are significant disparities in risk, the ethnic gap seems to have narrowed over time, with a wider gap between ethnic minorities and whites in earlier data (Hough et al, 2002: 60). Demographic breakdown of those on foot stopped by the police reveal similar data to car stops: the young are stopped more often than people over 30, men are stopped more often than women, and those from minority ethnic groups have higher rates than white respondents, with the exception of the Indian group. The risks of being stopped on foot were higher in inner and central London than in outer or peripheral areas of the city, 4.4% as against 2.5%, which is a statistically significant difference. Changes in the demography of the capital and a higher proportion of the Asian population in London being under 30 increased their risk of being stopped, than twenty years ago. Further, 30% of young black men reported being stopped three or more times, as compared to 9% of white responders, 8% of Indians, and 9% of Pakistanis and Bangladeshis in this age group (Hough et al, 2002: 61). Regarding contact between the public and members of the police service, some key findings of the research study conducted in London between 1999 to 2000 were that a half of Londoners have some form of contact with the police each year, but many others get to hear of their experiences. Among those who themselves seek contact with the police, over half the number mainly do so to report crime, or for other reasons. The main reasons for the police contacting the public is as suspects, and the majority of these are car stops. Often, the same people have contact with the police both as “users” and as suspects (Hough et al, 2002: 64). There is increasing fall in the contact between the public and the police, with the decline being much steeper in London than elsewhere. The levels of contact are higher in inner London buroughs where the police presence is greater, but contact as users is more in the more affluent inner buroughs, while contact as suspects is highest in deprived inner buroughs. The highest possibilities for being stopped are: being young, being male, being black and being single. But other factors are also likely to determine patterns of police activity. Differences between the police forces in various towns are small in relation to stops by the police, “but officers in London are significantly more likely to search those they stop” (Hough et al, 2002: 64). Spencer and Hough (2000: 33) recommend that when special operations involving high rates of stop and search or other similar techniques are used, closer consultation should be undertaken with local permanent beat officers and with the public. Concerns about police relations with particularly the black community had been raised since the 1960s. Lord Scarman’s Report, 1981 following the inquiry into the Brixton Riots, indicated the root cause of the riots as “an interaction between intense levels of social deprivation and a history of unlawful policing methods” (Hough et al, 2002: 23), which revealed racially prejudiced police conduct, and a lack of community consultation. The report also recognized the larger dilemmas faced by the police force in striking a balance between enforcing the law in a high-crime area and the risk of alienating sections of the community who would find themselves targeted increasingly as a result of the riots. The Scarman Report advocated the importance of maintaining public peace. Researchers found that prejudiced attitudes among the police personnel was normal and taken as a natural occurrence within the service, although this had less influence on actual policing on ground. Increased developments in the early 1990s fuelled a growing momentum for change within the service, and the focus widened in two ways: the elimination of discrimination against minority groups and equality of treatment began to receive attention concurrently with developments regarding the delivery of policing services. Significantly, wider aspects of diversity also began to be recognized as requiring attention, particularly with relation to immigrants, the homeless, the AIDs-affected, the disabled, the poor and those of different sexual orientation. Challenges Presented in Community Policing of Various Minority Groups The philosophy of community policing emphasizes the role of law enforcement by the police service while working proactively with citizens to prevent crime and to solve crime-related problems. The involvement of citizens in law enforcement is crucial, since the critical elements of community policing are partnerships and problem solving. Community policing requires a great deal of interaction with the public, which poses a challenge to the police force because of the increasing diversity in communties. Immigrants: Many immigrants face language problems, and fear the authorities. They are vulnerable and are likely to become victims of violent crime. Distrust of law enforcement leads to a failure in reporting crime and victimization. Large numbers of illegal immigrants who enter the country avoid the police for fear of deportation; and become easy targets of those who take advantage of their insecure position (Wrobleski & Hess, 2005: 176). The Growing Homeless Population: Vulnerable sections of the population of all ages are seen to be homeless, including the chronicall ill, the physically disabled and the mentally unsound. Police power to arrest the homeless person is curtailed by statutes and laws. The social problem of homelessness turns into a law enforcement problem when the homeless person breaks the law by “panhandling, trespassing, breaking into buildings, shoplifting, dealing drugs or committing some other offence” (Wrobleski & Hess, 2005: 176). As with immigrants, homeless people are often victims of crime, and since the public has a right to be free from interference, homeless pose a challenge to the police service. Growing Numbers of Individuals with AIDs and Other Diseases: The anti-immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDs) is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which infects and destroys specific white blood cells and results in the body’s inability to fight infection. Though the infected person can remain symptom-free for years, the virus gets transmitted from them to others. Individuals who are at high risk of contracting the virus are: intravenous drug users, homosexuals, and individuals who have sexual contact with people belonging to these groups, including prostitutes. The increasing numbers of AIDs victims is of concern to law enforcement because of the hazards that emerge from the infectious disease (Wrobleski & Hess, 2005: 177). The Growing Number of Individuals with Disabilities: One of the largest minority groups is composed of people with mental or physical disabilities, including the hearing impaired, the severely visually impaired, those with mental retardation and those who use wheelchairs. Additionally, those in law enforcement need to learn to differentiate between behaviour resulting from disabling conditions and those resulting from excessive use of alcohol or drugs. Some disabling conditions that can be mistaken for a drug high are “epilepsy, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, carbon monoxide poisoning, mental retardation and certain types of head injury” (Wrobleski & Hess, 2005: 177). The Poor: The dynamics of economics also plays a role in law enforcement, since the lack of money or the possession of it, is often the basis for criminal activity. The widening gap between the rich and the poor as well as the growing number of abjectly poor individuals surviving below the poverty line, gives rise to increasing theft, violence and offences committed with the purpose of economic gain (Wrobleski & Hess, 2005: 177). Those of Different Sexual Orientation: This dimension of community policing has significant bearing on allowing individuals who have different sexual orientation to live without harassment from the public. The police enforce equal treatment and opportunities for this group. The development of a diversity policing framework has been considered as necessary in order to promote trust and equity in police dealings with the public. Secondly, implementing the framework would help in the elimination of racism and all other dimensions of discrimination from within the police service, which is the root cause of police discrimination among the public. Diversity Policing Framework Since cross-cultural understanding between the police and the public leads to trust, it is advocated by Kazarian et al (2007: 16) that the public have a right and responsibility to participate in policing. A number of initiatives need to be undertaken to build trust, such as recruitment of police personnel from diverse linguistic and cultural groups; education of police officers in community race relations and in the best practices of policing with competency in cultural differences; and improving police capacity for serving aboriginal, ethno-cultural and ethno-racial communities at national, provincial, regional and local levels. Wrobleski & Hess (2005: 434) support this view and add that in-service training classes to develop community policing skills such as ability to communicate effectively with members of various ethnic and racial groups, needed to be implemented. Also, the police service’s performance evaluation criteria should include community policing abilities such as community mobilization skills, group facilitation, problem solving, and referral skills of police personnel. By adopting a diversity policing framework, a number of advantages are obtained; for example, a reduction in the frequency of injuries to law enforcement officers and citizens, a decrease in the number of complaints and lawsuits from citizens against the police, improvement in the relationship between the police and the community, effective response to any extensive changes in the demography or population composition in communities served by the police, and the use of diversity by the police as an asset rather than as a liability by recognizing and appreciating the value of diversity. Further, diversity policing has four core values, which are: affirming and valuing diverse customs and ways; validating a police-community climate of diverse perspectives; empowering and supporting diverse viewpoints from within and outside the police to assist in decision making and goal setting; promoting a police culture that respects the rights of diverse people; and contributing to police safety (Kazarian et al, 2007: 17). The initiatives for change towards diversity policing are evident in the development and improvement of several areas of community policing: “organizational support and culture; training and education; policy development; recruitment, selection, retention and promotion practices; staff development; community relations and development; and evaluation” (Kazarian et al, 2007: 17). Further, it is also important to establish relevant diversity training programmes for the police that focus on anti-racism and that provide training on the job as well as mentoring for inculcating diversity competency. Further, hiring of human rights officers to respond to complaints from the public regarding discrimination and harassment; involvement of leaders of diverse communities in criminal investigations; increased citizen participation in crime prevention initiatives; increased community involvement in reviewing police activity; establishment of hate crime units following terrorist attacks; and the inclusion of courses on diversity issues in policing in Police Foundations programmes. Education and Training of Police Personnel for Enforcing Policing Diversity Education and training of the police force forms part of the policing diversity framework. Various strategies have been formulated and implemented towards training and educating police personnel. This is for the purpose of maintaining positive community race relations as well as to ensure that no member of the public is “treated in a discriminatory way on the grounds of sex, colour, sexual orientation, religion or disability” (Spencer & Hough, 2000: 27). Moreover, all officers were required to comply with the principles taught in the course. Such measures are required to help enhance police-community relations in all areas, resulting in reduced levels of crime, assistance in bringing offenders to justice, and promotion of the quality and safety of life within communities. The success of the measures adopted by police agencies to enhance policing diversity depend on certain factors. Firstly, organizational sticks and carrots have to be applied to ensure that the police personnel follow all the rules in all circumstances. Secondly, improved communications between police personnel at all levels and through the hierarchy, as well as community consultation is crucial, since poor communications and mutual misunderstandings were found to be the basis for poor police/ community relations. Thirdly, sustained and long-term action to overcome problems in the recruitment of minorities in the police force, to tackle real and perceived racism in the service, improve the youth perceptions of police, overcome peer influence over joining the police, and increase the pool of qualified, ethnic minority applicants (Spencer & Hough, 2000: 27-30). A research study conducted by Chappell (2007: 498) found that traditional field training did not successfully integrate community oriented policing and problem solving in its formal evaluation process. Therefore it is crucial that police agencies who are truly committed to community policing should update their field training curricula to reflect the new philosophy for best policing practice. Since field training is undertaken immediately after the academy policing training course, it is the best time to provide recruits with experience in community policing and problem solving in practice, thus linking training and practice. Additionally, Lumb (1995: 23) examined how change could be achieved in both police attitudes and practice in relating to culturally diverse groups by means of training and education for police officers through continuing professional development. The programme was required to be carefully developed, academically sound, and adequately focused to create improved understanding, heightened awareness, and new tools of behaviour, in order to achieve the required change. Social, cultural and legal systems have an influence on the relationship between the police and diverse groups; and continuing professional development acts as a change agent to improve relations between the police and the diverse groups in the community that they serve. The design and provision of the course should include the nature, origin and implications of how prejudice and discriminatory practices by the police affect relationships with minorities. The author suggests that proposals to bring about positive change should be based on the problems and concerns identified. Towards improving the trust and confidence of minority communities in the police, the recommendations put forth by the government regarding recruitment and selection were that minority ethnic staff should be included in targets for recruitment, progression and retention of staff, in the policing plans of the Home Secretary and that of the Police Authorities. Further, the publishing of police reports regarding progress, submitted to the Home Secretary annually; the facilitation of initiatives to increase the number of qualified minority ethnic recruits by the Home Office and the Police Services; and inclusion of a report on the progress made by the Police Services in the recruitment, progression and retention of minority ethnic staff by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary (Rowe, 2004: 20). This view is supported by Kazarian et al (2007: 4) who state that people of diversity are not the “orphans of the community served and protected by police, but vital and contributing members of those communities”. With increasing diversity in communities, the police have to be sensitive to the multicultural, multiracial and varied nature of society. The actual practice of this principle requires that the diversity of the communities should be reflected within the police services at all ranks, along with implementation of the diversity policing framework (Siegel & Senna, 2005: 155). Conclusion This paper has highlighted policing diversity, and examined the claim that issues of race have dominated the police diversity agenda, and alternative dimensions of diversity such as gender, age, religion or sexual orientation have been given little consideration. This claim has been critically evaluated, and the implications of the evaluation on the policing of diverse communities have been discussed. The empirical evidence indicates that though issues of race are at the frontline of policing diversity, other areas of discrimination such as age, gender, status and sexual orientatoin also play an important part. The development and implementation of a policing diversity framework helps to educate and train police personnel for community policing without discrimination on any grounds. Ensuring cultural diversity within the police service is by recruiting women, ethnic minorities, and others irrespective of age, social class, or sexual orientation. Further, training and promoting recruits from all categories helps to eliminate racism and other forms of discrimination in policing diversity, and also increases safety for the police personnel in their dealings with the public. References Association of Chief Police Officers. 2000. Guide to identifying and combating hate crime. London: Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) Publications. Chappell, A.T. 2007. Community policing: is field training the missing link? Policing: an International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 30 (3): 498-517. Dantzker, M.L. 1999. Police organization and management. 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Policing and Reducing Crime Unit, Paper 121, Research Development Statistics, Home Office, London: Police and Reducing Crime (PRC) Publications. Accessed on 19th August, 2008 from: http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/prgpdfs/fprs121.pdf Wrobleski, H.M. & Hess, K.M. 2005. Introduction to law enforcement and criminal justice. The United Kingdom: Thomson Learning Publications. Read More