The Meaning of Race in Western Society - Essay Example

The Meaning of Race in Western Society Introduction The United States is a diverse country racially and ethnically. It comprises of six distinct races namely; whites, Asians, African-Americans, American Indians, Native Americans and other races. As a result there are constant cultural differences resulting in friction and warfare. Before political independence, the Americans depended on the Europeans for survival through provision of labour and other essential services. America was thus under the control of British until 1776 when it declared its independence. America was divided into North and South and differences existed between the two. The south was dependent on cotton plantations and depended solely on agriculture and therefore required cheap labour in the cotton plantations. This prompted slavery in the region as a source of cheap labour. On the other hand, the north depended on industries and turned cotton into finished goods. Urbanization was also rampant due to growth of cities and immigration and did not advocate for slavery. This often brought about conflicts between the north and south prompting the civil war in 1861-1865 (Jones, 1996). The whites were considered a superior race compared to the others. Racial discrimination was therefore evident and continues to plague America in all aspects of life including social, political, economic and cultural areas. The American independence declared all humans as equal and has inalienable right to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness and the constitution defended these rights. On this basis, civil rights movements were formed to fight for the rights of the minorities especially segregation and racial discrimination. The movement was particularly powerful in the south where minorities were often mistreated especially due to their conservatism nature and existence of Ku Klux Klan who were resistant to change. This paper discusses and analyzes civil rights movements operations and the varying ideas about how social, political, economic and cultural change could be achieved in the United States. American Civil War In order to understand the civil rights movements, it is essential to understand the circumstances surrounding the civil war as it formed the basis for the movements. The war had the worst casualties than all the other wars that had been fought in America including the world wars. According to McPherson (1990), America was experiencing rapid growth in population, territory size and economy as a whole. The population explosion was due to immigration and high birth rates in the north due to industrialization and urbanization. America was also involved in acquisition of new territories through conquering and purchasing such as the Indian Territory hence territorial expansion. Economic growth was a result of industrialization and increased incomes and cheap labour from slavery. The growth led to inequalities in wealth distribution, cultural erosion and increased slavery for the blacks. This often led to class, ethnic and sectional conflicts between north and south. The civil war was prompted by economic and social differences between the north and the south, state versus federal rights, slavery, growth of abolitionist movement as well as the election of Abraham Lincoln among others (Jones, 1996).The south was an agrarian plantation economy and remained bound by traditional values. Family ties, kinship and hierarchy were still important and the south fought to preserve these values. Slavery was thus essential for the regions economy and culture. There was also slow population growth due to migration of people to the cities in the north. The north on the other hand was an industrial capitalist economy characterized by high population growth. Traditional values are of less importance as people from different races worked together in the industrial economy. These conflicting ideologies often led to sectional conflict between the north and south and consequently the civil war. Another factor that led to the civil war was the conflict between state and federal rights. Some states especially the south felt that state rights were superior to federal rights. The federal government on the other hand insisted on use of federal rights to govern the states. Federal rights were against slavery and favoured the north and hence eleven southern states seceded from the union to form confederate states of America (Boyer et al. 2008). They exercised state rights and could refer to some federal rights as illegal leading to conflicts between the north and south. The fights between slave and non-slave state proponents were a major cause of the civil war. An agreement had been reached between north and south to have equal number of slave and non-slave states. The south was powerful as it controlled the federal government by having more representatives. The population growth in the north meant the political power was declining for the southerners and hence would not be able to defend slavery. The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 which gave freedom to two new territories to choose on whether to be a slave or non-slave state contributed much to the eruption of civil war McPherson (1990).The south would have preferred for the states to be compelled to be slave or non-slave for equality. Religious organizations were also against slavery. McPherson (1990) argues that individuals are supposed to have right to life, liberty and pursuit of happiness but the south was discriminating the minority races in acquiring such rights The opponents of slavery formed the abolitionist movement in 1820s and 1830s to compel the federal government to ban slavery as it was morally wrong and an evil in society. Some leaders like William Douglas wanted the slaves to be freed immediately, others like Theodore proposed gradual removal while others like Abraham Lincoln advocated for stoppage in spread of slavery. This posed a threat to slavery states in the south who argued that slavery was for the positive good and a necessity to save the blacks from crime and poverty. It was also a sign of peace and prosperity and to assert white supremacy. The south thus fought to resist the abolitionist movement threatening its survival. The election of Abraham Lincoln who was against slavery was the final blow to the south. It made some states seceded from the union. The confederates lost the war to the union hence destroying the southern vision. Reconstruction was inevitable and southern states were politically reintegrated into the union (Lichtenstein, 2002). The president wanted mild and conciliatory measures to be taken against the confederacy leaders but republican radicals saw it as lenient and hence took own measures of denying them civil rights. Laws were also legislated which gave the blacks political and economic rights. In retaliation, the south formed the Ku Klux Klan to terrorise the blacks. Southern states were also controlled by whites who denied the blacks their rights hence there was need for action to protect the black Americans from racial prejudice thus the emergence of civil rights movements. Civil Rights Movements According to Steinberg (2000), civil rights movements were formed to disintegrate systems of official segregation erected after slavery and to secure full rights of citizenship for African-Americans. Williams (1987) notes that the movements began in 1954 after the Brown V. Board of Education Supreme Court decision which advocated for school desegregation. Some of the movements include; National American Political League of 1908, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People(NAACP) 1910, National Independence Political League 1912, National Labor Congress 1924 and Congress on Racial Equity among others (Theodore, 1995). The Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision of 1896 founded on the principal of ‘separate but equal’ generated much heat and resistance because it contributed to racial segregation. Charles Hamilton and young lawyers undermined the doctrine (Williams, 1987). The civil rights movements operated on different levels. The black and white intellectuals had their own movement (NAACP) to fight for education and legal action to enhance racial equality. The working class blacks also formed the United Negro Improvement Association to fight for unity and opportunity to return to Africa to found a new nation. The blacks were segregated in schools, restaurants, buses, hospitals, socialization, intermarriage, and voting among others. According to Sigelman & Welch (1994), only three black adults in a hundred were allowed to vote in the south in 1940. The NAACP fought hard for racial advancement and was instrumental in promoting 14th and 15th amendment and anti-lynching bill. The 14th amendment extended legal protection regardless of race and the 15th was to abolish all racial restrictions on voting. The movements emphasized direct action and did not advocate use of violence, civil disobedience was the norm. It involved boycotts, sit-ins, protest marches and kneel-ins in churches. Williams (1987) observes that the brutal murder of Emmett Till for flirting with a white woman was an eye opener of the extent of white racism. It sparked angry reactions from the black Americans who reiterated by protests. The first was Montgomery bus boycott in 1955-1956 in Alabama by the Montgomery Improvement Association led by Martin Luther King, Jr. There was also the Greensboro sit-in in 1960 in North Carolina and protest marches in Selma. The Birmingham campaign of 1963-1964 was aimed at desegregating downtown business enterprises and voting rights campaign. High school students were involved in the campaigns but police dogs were unleashed on them and fire hoses opened on them. This forced president Kennedy to intervene in negotiations to desegregate public accommodation, form a committee to eliminate hiring discrimination, release of jailed protesters and to establish communication between the blacks and whites. A. Philip Randolph also organized protest march to Washington in 1963 to fight for jobs and freedom. The goal was to gain meaningful civil rights laws, right to vote, integrated education, full and fair employment as well as decent housing. Martin Luther King, Jr was instrumental in leading non-violent protests against segregation and racial discrimination. The achievement of the movement was the passage of civil rights Act of 1964 which banned discrimination in schools, employment and public accommodation. The voting rights Act was also passed in 1965 to ban discrimination in voting rights. In 1968, civil rights Act was advanced further to ban discrimination in sale and/or rental of housing. Immigration policies were also put in place. Steinberg (2000) argues that the struggle by the movement was for liberty not equality. It was to free the black Americans from white oppression. The supporters of civil rights movements had varied ideas about how social, political, economic and cultural changes could be achieved in the United States. The movements had achieved much in discouraging racial segregation and discrimination but different ideologies were advanced as to how best to achieve the goals. For Martin Luther, legislation alone was not enough to address the inequalities (Steinberg, 2000). The same view is echoed by Thomas Pettigrew who saw legislation as only part of the solution. He argued that Negro problems wouldn’t be solved if racialism and discrimination were absent. According to him, economic progress can only be achieved through employment and hence better education is the key (Sigelman & Welch, 1994). According to Malik (1996), race emerges from contradiction between ideological commitment to equality and the persistent inequality as a reality. For Miles, race is a human construct and hides the real economic relationships and acts as the basis for social actions (Solomos & Back, 1996). Sigelman & Welch (1994) blames the researchers for emphasizing on the whites attitudes than blacks and hence ignoring differences among blacks in socioeconomic standings and policy views. The solution to social, economic, political and cultural changes involves changing the negative attitudes of whites towards blacks and understanding the attitudes of the blacks to racial inequality hence develop the right policies. The blacks have different attitudes; some emphasize black shortcomings as the reason for racial inequality and therefore don’t favour government spending programmes for welfare and the poor. Since racial segregation hinders the achievement of political and economic rights, most of the solutions lie with changing perceptions of the blacks towards racial segregation and discrimination. Improvements in education attainment for blacks would enable them compete in the job market and advance socially, economically and politically. According to Theodore (1995), the experience of blacks in America politics is consistent with pluralist theory. The theory is centred on group interests who form the foundation of civil rights movements. Politics is emphasized as a means of economic advancement. Malik (1996) is opposed to the idea of pluralism. Feminist attitudes are also important in determining political attitudes of black women which ensure their advancement and achievement of gender equality. Conservatists believe in laissez-faire economics where no government intervention is present but Supports cash payments from federal government to children of slaves. This will improve their economic and social well being. Reed (1986) believes the population is directly confronted by social institutions and adjusts according to survival criterion. Individual social actions could help achieve the political, economic and cultural change. Political activists prevent the rise of nationalism within black community due to misinterpretation of race and class. Ambiguous demands are thus made on the American state. The blacks as a result become subordinate to American power elites instead of individual actions. Political change can be achieved by appointments of blacks in offices in congress, state house, federal state and local councils so as to become prominent people. For Reed, a meaningful social theory for blacks must answer practical questions relevant to world of immediate action or public policy. This enables to deal with political, cultural and economics matters which are interrelated in nature. The industrial revolution in America saw growth of craft industries from manufacturing to service industries and growth of trade union movements (Jones, 1996). Women began to be represented in these unions and legislative Acts were passed to curb discrimination of all forms. The trade union movements advanced the course for civil rights movements and have steered the social, political, economic and cultural changes needed in the United States. Conclusion The civil rights movements have done much to liberate the minority races from black supremacy. They consist of dedicated people who are ready to fight for a worthy course no matter the consequences. Some like Lincoln were assassinated but the fight continues. They emphasized on non-violence and advocated for civil disobedience in terms of boycotts, sit-ins and protest marches in order to eliminate racial segregation and discrimination. The movements were prevalent in the south due to slavery and existence of Ku Klux Klan who were used to lynch the blacks and deny them their political and economic rights. The movement actions were felt in different areas and operated on different levels. They were able to make achievements especially legislations but the supporters of the movement argued that the answer lies in changing perceptions and attitudes of the whites and blacks towards racial inequality so as to achieve social, political, economic and cultural changes needed. References Boyer, Clark, Kett, Salisbury, Sitkoff & Woloch (2008). The Enduring Vision: A History of the American People. Boston: Houghton Miffin. Jones Maldwyn A. (1996). The Limits of Liberty; American History 1607-1992. New York: Oxford University Press. Lichtenstein Nelson (2002). State of the Union: A Century of American Labor. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Malik Kenan (1996). The Meaning of Race: Race, History and Culture in Western Society. Macmillan Press Ltd. McPherson James M. (1990) Battle Cry of Freedom: The American Civil War. London: Penguin Reed Adolph L (1986) Race, Politics and Culture: Critical essays on the radicalism of the 1960s Greenwood, Westport (Con). Sigelman Lee & Welch. Susan (1994) Black Americans’ Views of Racial Inequality: The Dream Deferred. New York: Cambridge University Press. Solomos John & Back. Les (1996). Racism and Society. New York: Macmillan Steinberg Stephen (2000) Race and ethnicity in the United States: issues and debates. USA: Blackwell Publishers Theodore Rueter (1995). The Politics of Race: African Americans and the Political System. New York: Sharpe Publishers. Williams Juan (1987) Eyes on the Prize: America’s Civil Rights Years, 1954 – 1965. Penguin Books Read More