Weapons Of Mass Destruction - Research Paper Example

Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Changing Face of Asymmetric Warfare and Terrorism Introduction The attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on September 11, 2001 have made it all too clear that terrorists and terrorist organizations have all the capability to wreak havoc on the innocent population with weapons of mass destruction (WMD). The threat of annihilation is brutally clear if we remain unaware of what these groups can offer. It also clear that there is a wide spectrum of potential threats that do not involve the threat of overt attacks by states using long-range missiles or conventional military forces. There are more ways to inflict heavy damage on the people by these terrorist groups. Such threats can range from the acts of individual extremists to state-sponsored asymmetric warfare. They can include covert attacks by state actors, state use of proxies, and independent terrorist groups. They can include attacks by foreign individuals and residents of the United States whose motives can range from religion to efforts at extortion. Motives can range from well-defined political and strategic goals, to religion and political ideology, crime and sabotage, or acts by the psychologically disturbed. The means of attack can vary from token uses of explosives, cyber-terrorism, car and truck bombs, and passenger airliners to the use of weapons of mass destruction. (Cordesman, 2002, p. 1) The purpose of this essay is to discuss on the many facets of weapons of mass destruction, the descriptions and other details so that we may be aware of how we and innocent civilians out there may be able to defend ourselves of this menace in society. There are widespread assumptions that terrorist groups are going to use WMD and the use of NBC (nuclear, biological, and chemical) weapons by terrorists is highly inevitable. There is an increase in the number of terrorist groups that are both capable and interested in causing mass casualties. Their weapons have become more lethal in the age of globalization. Throughout history, chemical and biological (CBW) weapons have been used by politically motivated individuals and groups, for purposes such as assassinations and generating terror. Since the successful development of the first nuclear weapons in 1945, debates about terrorism involving nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) weapons have been cyclical in nature, recurring in every decade, with varying levels of intensity. Definitions The term “weapons of mass destruction” (WMD) has been introduced to the world by recent horrible events like the Japanese subway attack using Sarin nerve agent, the abortive Russian hostage release at the Moscow theater using fentanyl, and threats from North Korea and Iran for use of nuclear weapons. Most people would consider WMD as a collective for nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) weapons, but this is not correct (Langford, 2004). All weapons of mass destruction may not cause extensive destruction. A better definition for these weapons might be: ‘those things which kill people in more horrible ways than bullets or trauma, or which cause effects other than simply damaging or destroying buildings and objects, with element of fear or panic included’ (1). a. Nuclear Weapons Nuclear weapons utilize the physical process of fission by which a radioactive atom can be caused to split into two or more fragments while releasing atomic energy. Nuclear weapons produce great heat and light, a strong pressure wave, and radioactivity. (Langford, 2004, p. 2) Nuclear explosives have been the most feared of the weapons of mass destruction. This is because of their ability to cause enormous instantaneous devastation and of the persistent effects of the radiation they emit, unseen and udetectable by unaided human senses. The Manhattan Project cost the United States $2 billion in 1945 spending power and required the combined efforts of a continent-spanning industrial enterprise and a pool of scientists, many of whom had already been awarded the Nobel Prize and many more who would go on to become Nobel Laureates. For many decades the Manhattan Project provided the paradigm against which any potential proliferator’s efforts would be measured. Fifty years after the Trinity explosion, it has been recognized that the Manhattan Project is just one of a spectrum of approaches to the acquisition of a nuclear capability. A nation may find a way to obtain a complete working nuclear bomb from a willing or unwilling supplier; or it may elect to construct a complete nuclear infrastructure including the mining of uranium, the enrichment of uranium metal in the fissile isotope, the production and extraction of plutonium, the production of tritium, and the separation of deuterium and Li to build thermonuclear weapons. (Nwanna, 2004, p. 24) Acquisition of a militarily significant nuclear capability involves, however, more than simply the purchase or construction of a single nuclear device or weapon. It requires attention to issues of safety and handling of the weapons, reliability and predictability of entire systems, efficient use of scarce and valuable special nuclear material (SNM) (plutonium and enriched uranium), chains of custody and procedures for authorizing the use of the weapons, and the careful training of the military personnel who will deliver weapons to their targets. (Nwanna, 2004, p. 24) Nuclear weapons, like high explosive weapons, produce heat, light, and pressure. While the magnitude may be quite different, the effects are similar although reduced in conventional explosives. The uniqueness of nuclear weapons, whether a nuclear bomb or warhead or “dirty bomb,” is radiation. The long term effects of radiation create more fear. Radiation can cause cancer and birth defecdts, even after many years have passed following the exposure. It is well known that the fetus and children are more sensitive to the effects of radiation than adults; thus fear of the effects of nuclear weapons on one’s children and grandchildren is something not present when a conventional high explosive bomb is detonated. The employment of a true nuclear weapon could cause mass destruction due to the required size of the weapon by the laws of physics. (Langford, 2004, p. 3) Nuclear bombs and warheads are real examples of WMD. By their nature, these weapons produce large amounts of heat, light, blast, and radiation. On the other hand, a “dirty bomb” does not suffer from such design limitations, but would be a true “weapon of mass destruction” because of limitations on the extent of contamination. Of the three categories of nuclear/biological/chemical weapons, true nuclear weapons are those of mass destruction. Interestingly, of the three, only nuclear weapons have not been banned by international treaties. (Langford, 2004, p. 4) Other facts about nuclear weapons: (1) The design and production of nuclear weapons today is a far simpler process than it was during the Manhattan Project. (2) Indigenous development of nuclear weapons is possible for countries with industrial bases no greater than that of Iraq in 1990. Given a source of fissile material, even terrorist groups could construct their own nuclear explosive devices. (3) At least two types of nuclear weapons can be built and fielded without any kind of yield test, and the possessors could have reasonable confidence in the performance of those devices. (4) The standing up of elite units to take custody of nuclear weapons or to employ them would be a useful indicator that a proliferant is approaching the completion of its first weapon. (5) The acquisition of fissile material in sufficient quantity is the most formidable obstacle to the production of nuclear weapons. Although talented people are essential to the success of any nuclear weapons program, the fundamental physics, chemistry, and engineering involved are widely understood; no basic research is required to construct a nuclear weapon. Therefore, a nuclear weapons project begun in 1996 does not require the brilliant scientists who were needed for the Manhattan Project which produced the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs. When the Manhattan Project began far less than a microgram of plutonium had been made throughout the world, and plutonium chemistry could only be guessed at; the numbers of neutrons released on average in 235U and 239Pu fissions were unknown; the fission cross sections (probabilities that an interaction would occur) were equally unknown, as was the neutron absorption cross section of carbon. (Nwanna, 2004, p. 25) b. Chemical Weapons On the other hand, chemical weapons are generally those substances that adversely affect the body’s natural functioning. The most common types include those chemicals which prevent the blood from carrying oxygen, those that irritate or destroy the respiratory system, those which cause the nervous system to malfunction, those which cause uncontrolled bleeding, and those which cause skin and other lesions. (Langford, 2004, p. 3) Chemical weapons are defined as weapons using the toxic properties of chemical substances rather than their explosive properties to produce physical or physiological effects on an enemy. Although instances of what might be styled as chemical weapons date to antiquity, much of the lore of chemical weapons as viewed today has its origins in World War I. During that time, “gas” (actually an aerosol or vapor) was used effectively on numerous occasions by both sides to alter the outcome of battles. A significant number of battlefield casualties were sustained. The Geneva Protocol prohibiting use of chemical weapons in warfare was signed in 1925. Several nations, including the United States, signed with a reservation forswearing only the first use of the weapons and reserved the right to retaliate in kind of chemical weapons were used against them. (Nwanna, 2004, p. 12) Biological weapons are largely agents of normal disease, although they might be enhanced technologically. The uniqueness of biological weapons, both pathogens and toxins, lies in the fact that modern science and medicine have largely convinced us that diseases can often be cured. Even horrible diseases like various cancers have been successfully treated so that many people survive and even go on to lead normal lives. Agents are selected for the reason that they are impossible or difficult to treat using modern medicine. Similarities of NBC weapons Unlike more common weapons, biological weapons have a psychological component beyond their physical, chemical, and biological make-up and use: fear and anxiety. All three have a fear factor beyond what are considered as “normal” weapons of war. These weapons create great fear upon the people who are the victims: the fear of the unknown with respect to radiation and radioactivity causes a greater response in the majority of people. Also, there are certain laws of physics, including meteorology, which govern the movement of materials, whether radioactive fallout, chemicals, toxins, or pathogens. (Langford, 2004, p. 3) Biological agents are naturally occurring microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi) or toxins that can cause disease and death in a target population. They can also attack the food supply and/or materiel of a nation. Biological weapons (BW) which project, disperse, or disseminate biological agents have two characteristics that enhance their effectiveness as weapons: (1) Biological agents, other than toxins, reproduce and, therefore, a small amount of infectious agent can cause disease; (2) Biological agents, other than toxins, usually require an incubation period of hours to days to manifest signs of exposure so the affected soldier (or person) is not certain whether a biological agent attack has occurred until illness sets in. (Nwanna, 2004, p. 4) c. Nerve Gases These are also known as anticholinesterase agents that were discovered by the Germans in the 1930s and developed during World War II. In 1936, the German chemist Gerhard Schrader discovered what he called “tabun” or GA. Two years later Schrader discovered the even more toxic “sarin” or GB. These compounds are orders of magnitude more toxic than those used in World War I and thus represent the significant toxicity increase that changed the concept of employment. Nerve gases are liquids, not gases, which block an enzyme (acetylcholinesterase) that is necessary for functions of the central nervous system. They produce the effects made pesticides. The nerve gases are effective when inhaled or when absorbed by the skin (percutaneous), or both, although there are differences in effectiveness. (Nwanna, 2004, p. 13) Each of the broad categories of warfare and terrorist weapons has unique characteristics, making them individually frightening. The three general classes of WMD, chemical, biological, and nuclear, are intended to produce fear, but some are intended to destroy people and facilities while others are intended simply to kill people or even just make them so ill that they cannot perform required functions. The area of destruction or harm can be quite different for each of these weapon systems. Exposure versus Dose Most measurements of biological and chemical agents involve the amount of aerosol in the air. If there is a person at that location, this would be the person’s exposure to the agent. However, the amount actually taken in by the person can be less than the exposure. The chance that a particular dose will be received by a person when the air contains a toxic material is proportional to its concentration in the air and to the length of time of the exposure d. Radiological Weapons Radiological weapons use the beta rays, neutrons, and gamma rays emitted by the decay of highly radioactive isotopes to kill or incapacitate. In general, the latency period between exposure to high doses of radiation and the onset of symptoms is long (hours to weeks, depending upon dose), but it may be as short as minutes if neutron doses on the order of several thousand rads (whole body dose) can be delivered. (Nwanna, 2004, p. 22) Conclusion The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction has truly placed the world into a more dangerous place to live in. Countries big and small are concerned of a nuclear holocaust, hence some of these countries, especially the United Nations have used all means to control the use of WMD. Moreover, there is still hope for humanity. Except for some countries trying to be stubborn and hardheaded (like Iran and North Korea which have been featured as the ‘axis’ of evil by the past U.S. administration), there has been success on the nonproliferation issue of WMD on major nuclear superpowers. The Cold War ended peacefully, and countries with nuclear weapons such as Belarus, Kazakstan, and the Ukraine transferred their nuclear weapons to Russia. In South America, where rivals Argentina and Brazil had developed nuclear programs between the 1960s and 1980s, both countries renounced their nuclear weapons programs. They signed agreements to renounce nuclear weapons. Agreements were also signed for arms reduction between the United States and the Soviet Union, and also relieved tensions between India and Pakistan and between Brazil and Argentina. However, there’s a problem with Iran who continues to pursue its nuclear energy and weapons program despite UN and US sanctions. The International Atomic Energy Agency is widely referred to as the UN’s watchdog group. It is most recognized for its inspections of nuclear sites in countries suspected of developing covert weapons programs. The IAEA focuses on three main areas of work in the promotion of peaceful, safe, and secure nuclear technology. Besides verifying safeguards of nuclear material, the agency helps nations improve safety and security measures in their nuclear facilities, and supports peaceful research and development of nuclear energy. (Brezina, 2005, p. 48) Besides monitoring nuclear weapons held by countries, various international groups also regulate the transfer of nuclear materials. Two organizations, the Non-Proliferation Treaty Exporters Committee (also known as the Zangger Committee) and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), control the legal export of nuclear materials. When countries want to buy materials that could be used to produce nuclear weapons the groups inform the IAEA. If the buyers refuse to accept IAEA inspections and safeguards, the deal is canceled. Therefore, countries such as India, Pakistan, and Israel cannot buy materials from Zangger Committee or NSG members. Nuclear supplier organizations only reduce commerce of unregulated or illegal weapons. Only forty nations participate in the Zangger Committee or the NSG. The possibility exists that any of these countries could violate the agreement or that experts could smuggle nuclear materials or secrets without their government’s knowledge. There is also the risk from lax security, especially in Russia. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, its WMD were scattered across its member states. When Gorbachev became president in 1988, he hastily transferred between 100 and 200 tons of anthrax from Siberia and buried it on Vozrozhdeniye. After the fall of the Soviet Union, the island was left unoccupied, easily accessible to intruders. But in 2002, an American expedition uncovered, killed, and reburied the anthrax spores. In 2003, U.S. president George W. Bush launched the Proliferation Security Initiative, which called for countries to seize cargo suspected of containing WMD materials or other agents of terrorism. A year later, he proposed to expand the measure, addressing a very real danger. Weapons materials from former Soviet arsenals, as well as other loose WMD materials are bought and sold on the black market. (Brezina, p. 52) The world has to be vigilant on its guard of WMD and keep these from the hands of terrorists and terrorist organizations. References Brezina, C. (2005). Weapons of mass destruction: proliferation and control. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. pp. 48-52. Cordesman, A. (2002). Terrorism, asymmetric warfare, and weapons of mass destruction: defending the U.S. homeland. United States of America: Center for Strategic and International Studies. pp. 1-2. Langford, R. (2004). Introduction to weapons of mass destruction: radiological, chemical, and biological. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Nwanna, G. (2004). Weapons of mass destruction, what you should know: a citizen’s guide to biological, chemical, and nuclear agents & weapons. United States of America: Frontline Publishers. Read More