Notions of Transcendence Developed from Axial Age to Modern Age - Essay Example

Religion and Theology Religion and Theology Notions of Transcendence Developed from Axial Age to Modern age There is strong evidence that shows that during distinct rare historical intervals, there were witnessed major advances in relation to the world’s philosophical, religious and political systems. The thinking was dominated by these significant changes during the millennia and centuries from the axial to modern age periods (Lambert, 1999). The 16th century BCE, to be precise, was a time that was characterized by radical changes all over the world. The radical changes were made in the religious concepts that were basic that led to sudden new ideas emergence. The spiritual development of humans went through a radical change worldwide. This later became the start, in most cases, of our traditions as practiced in the present faith (Parkes, 1959). There is no causation theory that is accepted that can explain satisfactorily the rapid transformation that was experienced. The new doctrines that were developed that entailed the values and worldviews were in most cases later used to organize religious systems. Many of the traditional beliefs and rituals conducted by mankind were incorporated in the new religions. Despite this, the transformation was not aimed to develop and reform the religious teachings that were seen as old, but a new start from the scratch (Parkes, 1959). The years of 500 BCE were characterized by advances in its great form in the field of science, religion, democracy, several art forms and philosophy to name a few. This occurred almost in a simultaneous and independently at the same time in India, China, Greece and the Middle East. The laid spiritual foundations of that time are the ones still used today (Jaspers, 1959). During the times political turmoil and social upheaval, there emerged a new group of elite as the new social and cultural order carrier. The religious leaders that were viewed as great rose to become more prominent thus were attracting a great mass of followers. This enabled the changes on the spiritual, sociological, economic and cultural practices. In China, there arose many of the individual thinkers like Lao- Tse, Mo Tzu and Confucius, who decided to start reflecting on metaphysical and ethical implications of the existence of humans. In the teachings of such leaders, there was the rise of Jainism, Daoism and Confucianism (Jaspers, 1959). In India, the Upanishads authors expanded their exploration scope, thus including the metaphysical thinking. This was meant to make the search for ultimate truth become successful as it was believed. Another important emphasis was laid in the finding of the meaning of death and life. There was a dramatic intellectual and social- political transformation that was experienced in India. This led to Mahavira and Buddha teachings as the product of transformation. As also witnessed in China, the new teachings in India were analyzed in reference to materialism, skepticism, nihilism and sophism. In Palestine, the prophets Isaiah, Elijah, Deutero- Isaiah and Jeremiah were recognized. The Israelites’ moral code and law existed before this age. In the ancient Mesopotamia, the experienced cultural developments were close and linked to those of ancient Israel. Even though the concepts that included believing in God and the full subservience by the political rulers to God didn’t exist (Eisenstadt, 1986; Karen, 2001). The developments in Greece were more of philosophical as opposed to spiritual. The Greeks witnessed the appearance of Heraclitus, Thales, Parmenides, Democritus and Xenophanes. These philosophers are accredited for their teachings having influenced subsequently the likes of Socrates, Aristotle and Plato. All these thinkers were guided by the thirst to discover the fundamental existence principles. This is tied to the implication that these principles had on the life of humans (Vladimir, 2006; Humphrey, 1986). Many of the different cultures questioned their cosmologies that existed in the present. This led to rapid change in the beliefs that were held by the people. This led to the rejection of the concept that they had before that God was greater than the living human being (Jaspers & Bullock, 2010). The Axial age was succeeded by the world of two major religions (Islam and Christianity) that we have today, courtesy of spiritual transformation (Landon, 1999). Effects of Colonialism in Asian Modern Religious Development The act of colonialism began in the first decades and went through a long period of time in the years after. From the 16th century, Southeast Asia was under the power of colonizer with the major colonizer being the European powers of that time. These European powers were: French, British, Dutch, Portuguese and Spain (Second Enlightenment, 2010). Added to the Europeans, the Americans and Japanese were the colonizers of the South East Asia. The Southeast Asian countries became under the European power due to their kingdoms and empires decline in power as the Europeans gained strength on the other hand. Europeans had planned to expand their territories, export raw materials to their continent, explore the additional new markets, and spread their culture and religion, and their routes of trade among others (UK Essays, 2015). This made it be several reasons as to why the European nations got interested in the in the colonization of Southeast Asia. This would be mainly distributed in the form of culture that included religious practices, economic gains and political reasons. During the period, the presence of the Europeans in Southeast Asia came with a great impact to the local’s part. While the European powers had a tremendous gain on the resources that were found in the Southeast Asia, they tampered with the host countries religion and practices. This is because they came in and introduced the development of their own religion in the host country. This period was characterized with economic developments like mining, commercial agriculture, and exportation of goods and services (Andrews, 2010). In addition, the European countries made several changes in the Southeast Asia religious practices. The arrival of Christianity in the Southeast Asia affected the host nation tremendously. The effects were more so felt in the practices of culture and society in general. The European countries large labor demand led to mass migration, thus causing demographic changes in the country. There is always strength in numbers and here, the colonizers were reducing the Southeast Asians people thus making their practices weaker. The colonizers also introduced education and political systems that were against the Southeast Asian countries’ practices. In summary, the changes by the European countries changed the social, political and economic trends of the Southeast Asia (Gould, 2011). The rules and regulations set by the colonial powers upon the people of Southeast Asia had impacts on the nationalists movements rise as the locals tried to fight for independence (Mohamed & Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988). The historical causes of nationalism that was witnessed in Southeast Asia could be generalized into three areas. The first would be the cause of religious and cultural movements. The religion played a major role in the society of Southeast Asia. The combination of religion and culture ensured that the local became aware. There were so many religious movements during the colonial era of Southeast Asia. Examples of the movements are: The Young Man’s Buddhist Association in Burma that took place in 1906 and Sarekat Islam in Indonesia that took place in 1992.The aim of such like movements was to unite the Southeast Asian people against the colonial powers that were ‘liquidating’ their cultural practices (Visweswaran, 2011). The second source of conflict was the rise against a western style of education that affected their culture and more so religious practices (Williams, 2011; IEP, 2015). There were so many political movements that were conducted in the western style a result of western influence. This shows that the general public was somehow inspired by the ideologies of the western people. This made them forget their traditional practices as they respond to wake up call of ‘modernization’. The Last one was the communist movements who tried to act friendly with the colonizers. To be free from the culture degradation, movements were formed in the form of: religious movements, western- political movements and lastly the communist’s movements (Dani et al., 1992; Mathews et al., 1986). ‘Golden Rule’, a Universal Feature of Post Axial Teachings The ‘Golden Rule’ is based on the idea that one needs to treat others the way they would like to be treated themselves (Acharya, 1999). This is the emphasis on the need for one to love a neighbor the same way he or she loves herself. Puka (2010) quotes Confucius, Zoroaster and the book of Galatians; "What I do not wish others to do to me, that also I wish not to do to them" (Analects, 5.11) while Zoroaster (628-551 B.C.E.) said, "That which is good for all and anyone, for whomsoever—that is good for me...what I hold good for self, I should for all. Only Law Universal is true Law" (Gathas, 43.1). The book of Leviticus says, "You shall love your neighbor as yourself" (Lev. 19: 18).” The golden rule is still a teaching in that it is practiced among the Christians and it is believed to be the greatest law of all times (Swidler, 1990). This is despite the fact that it was set in a different timeline with its origin going as far as the Biblical periods of Jesus Christ. The rule reminds us of the fact that we are interconnected and need each other. This is the same principle that is witnessed under globalization. Christianity presents a kind of philosophy that vengeance and payback are discouraged. This would have ensured end of wars that is witnessed now if only the Golden rule would have been applied. In today’s world of globalization and the interconnectedness of the systems, the golden rule as a principle can’t be practiced. This is due to limited that made the countries, continents, regions not to be able to share their resources free of charge. In this concern, the services and goods that are offered are normally done in the expectation of something in return (Karl, 1951). This applies to the politics of the day to day world. The acts of terrorism, high population growth as experienced in China are being handled in a manner that doesn’t show the application of the golden rule. The world has also developed that much of the emphasis is laid on the economic gains as opposed to social gains (Cyrus, 1998). The notion has been that with better position in economic terms all. This has made activities to be done in terms of profitability as opposed to helping the locals or citizens concerned (Richard, 1975). Christianity criticism puts it that some of the Christian teachings are so old fashioned and was meant for a past duration of time. This means, therefore, that the day to day dynamics can’t allow the practice of the Christian principles (Ewert, 1994). Religious Traditions and Interconnected with Global Issues I would communicate with the public peers about the way religious traditions address the present global issues through the technological avenues. Harris, Woo & Christina (2010) quotes Gabe Lyons, The Q founder: “”Theres a new generation of Christians who are engaging the world in a different way, largely driven by the fact that were in a different context than many Christians have had to live in, in quite some time.” This shows that the dynamic in the in reaching of individuals like peers has changed. These avenues include the website, social media, use of mobile phone, forums among other avenues. To make the discussion or information relevant and worth paying attention to there will be need of practical examples to help elaborate on how the two link. The practical examples of this section are discussed below. A global issue like terrorism, for example, is an act that occurs as an element of vengeance from one community to another. The religious teaching in relation to this says that one should forgive the neighbor and love him or her as you love yourself. If this is the basic principle among the Christians, then it means that if practiced there would be no terrorism. The acts of war that normally happen in relation to vengeance or fighting for a resource will not also take place if the Golden Rule is practiced (Kirk & Rivett, 2014). Christian teachings and other religious teachings also do discourage the acts of fornication and adultery. Research shows that most of the cases of HIV/ AIDs are caused through fornication and adulterous activities. The fact that the religious institutions condemn these two vices then it means that it addresses the concerns of today. Global issues like use of limited resources are also linked to religious teachings (Pecknold, 2010). The teachings uphold the Golden rule that would enable the resources to be shared equitably and efficiently. This would eliminate the wars that are associated with limited resources in our day to day life. The vices like corruption are also addressed through the religious teachings through the laws that condemn stealing and those that promote hard work (Blank, 1992). References Acharya, S (1999). The Christ Conspiracy: The Greatest Story Ever Told. Kempton, IL: Adventures Unlimited. Andrews, E. E. (2010) Christian Missions and Colonial Empires Reconsidered: A Black Evangelist in West Africa, 1766–1816. Journal of Church and State. Retrieved from http://jcs.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2010/03/04/jcs.csp090 Bennet, C. (2010). The Axial Age. 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Harris, D., Woo, W. & Christina, N. G. (2010). Christians finding their voice tackling global issues. Retrieved from http://abcnews.go.com/WN/christianity-emerges- youth/story?id=10842049 Humphreys, S. C. (1986) Dynamics of Greek Breakthrough, In Eisenstadt Shmuel Noah, The origins of diversity of axial age civilization. NY: State University of New York Press. IEP (2015). The Golden Rule. Retrieved from http://www.iep.utm.edu/goldrule/ Jaspers, K. (1959). Way to wisdom: An introduction to philosophy. New Haven: Yale University Press. Jaspers, K., & Bullock, M. (2010). The origin and goal of history. London: Routledge. Karen, A. (2001). The Battle for God. NY :HarperCollins. Karl, J. (1951)Way to Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Kirk, S. L., & Rivett, S. (2014). Religious transformations in the early modern Americas. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Lambert, Y. (1999). Religion in Modernity as a New Axial Age: Secularization or New Religious Forms? Sociology of Religion, 60 (3), 303- 333 Landon, C. J. (1999). World History and the Eonic Effect. Oregon: Quality Books. Matthews, B., Nagata, J. A., Canadian Council for Southeast Asian Studies., & Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. (1986). Religion, values, and development in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Mohamed, A. & Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (1988). Islamic banking in Southeast Asia: Islam and the economic development of Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Parkes, H. B. (1959). Gods and men: The origins of Western culture. New York: Knopf. Pecknold, C. C. (2010). Christianity and politics: A brief guide to the history. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books. Richard M. (1975). Abortion and the Golden Rule. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 4 (3), 201- 222. Second Enlightenment (2010).Christian Complicity in Colonialism/ Globalism. 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