Sway of Drill on Hurt Intussusception - Research Paper Example

Topic: Effect of exercise on pain perception Name: Lecturer: Course name: Course code: Date: Abstract An experiment was done to determine whether aerobic exercise reduces pain perception. A total of 15 participants volunteered for the experiment amongst whom 10 were females and 5 were males. The participant’s pain threshold and tolerance were measured before and after engaging in the aerobic exercise and the data recorded accordingly. The results and the subsequent statistical data analysis indicated that the aerobic exercise increase pain threshold thus decreasing sensitivity to pain. However, further studies should be done to establish if aerobic exercise significantly increase pain tolerance using a less biased sample to conduct the experiment. This is because for this experiment the number of females was significantly more than the male participants in the experiment. Introduction The role of pain perception and its relationship with aerobic exercise has been researched severally. These include studies to establish whether engaging in exercise reduces the sensitivity to pain. Consequently, a significant number of research outcomes have established that during and after exercise there is reduced perception of pain. Most of these researches were mainly done under experimental and clinical conditions. However, mixed results and evaluations from different researchers about this claim have also been evident. Some researchers claim that the reduced pain perception is not as a result of the aerobic exercise, while others claim that aerobic exercise does not significantly decrease the sensitivity to pain. In a study to examine the nature of stress in regards to interpersonal competition, as well as examining which elements of physical exertion, psychological stress, or athletic competition triggered endogenous pain inhibition, Smith found that athletes respond to noxious stimuli when subjected to competition stress. He stated that stress instigated analgesia commonly observed in competing athletes resulted in the reduction of pain Smith (2004). In addition, the study revealed that strenuous exercise lead to stress instigated analgesia. A study of the impact of aerobic exercise on psychological, disability, and pain symptoms among persons with fibromyalgia was done by Nichols and Glenn (1994). Individuals diagnosed with fibromyalgia in relation to aerobic exercises were examined over a period of eight weeks. Each individual was asked to complete pre-tests and post-tests of BSI (Brief Symptom Inventory), MPQ (McGill Pain Questionnaire), and SIP (Sickness Impact Profile). The exercise was found to be beneficial in respect of pain and lower psychological ratings but insignificant for higher physical disability ratings. However, no evidence was found to suggest significant positive effects. In addition, research has established that there are other benefits associated with aerobic exercise besides its influence on the reduction of sensitivity to pain. Aerobic exercise has also been established to be of great help in mood improvement. Hoffman and Hoffman (2007) noted the positive effects of regular aerobic exercise to patients suffering from psychiatric conditions, chronic pain and depression. The significant role of anaerobic exercise in mood improvement based on the outcomes of various experiments is almost certain. However, the role of aerobic exercise on pain perception is still a subject of great debate amongst various researchers. Great contention and debate about the findings of various research projects have been witnessed with some researchers arguing that the approach used during the study affected the outcome of the research. However, most researchers seem to agree that aerobic exercise plays a major role in pain reduction even thou some of the researchers still believe that this is not the case. Since most of the studies are based on individuals with pain, a group of researchers has recommended that for reliable conclusions to be made then pain free individuals and other individual with various chronic pain conditions should be included in the research to reduce bias. Drury, Greenwood, Stuempfle and Koltyn (2005) the researchers conducted a study with healthy females included only as participants. The objective was to evaluate the changes in the perception of pain in the course and after exercise. Pain assessment of the participants was done before and after a high intensity cycling competition. Data collected at baseline from the participants included: heart rate, oxygen uptake, pain tolerance and pain threshold. The conclusion of the researchers’ work was that decreased sensitivity to pain in women occurs during and after exercise. Subsequent research by Drury et al. (2005) showed that aerobic exercise significantly altered pain sensitivity regardless of gender. Most of the studies mentioned above showed positive outcomes on the influence of aerobic exercise in the reduction of pain perception. However, some other research studies failed to establish such similar relationships. Padawer and Levine (1992) reported that the hypoalgesia derived from exercise is due to the repeated pain testing but not the effect of aerobic exercise. Such varied and conflicting conclusions as showed in the studies stated above may have resulted due to different choices of pain stimuli used by the different researchers. For instance, Padawer and Levine conduct their research using a cold presser test (CPT) but Koltyn et al. used a pressure pain stimulus to conduct his study. Objective To investigate and establish the effect of exercise on pain perception Hypothesis Aerobic exercise does not reduce pain perception Method Outlines the procedures of conducting the experiment and include; i) Participants The aim of the experiment is to investigate the effect of exercise on pain perception. For this particular experiment, I gave volunteers from a tutorial group in college instructions on how to participate and proceed with the experiment. This included a total of 15 participants who volunteered for the experiment. ii) Procedure Each of the volunteering participants is to exercise for 10 minutes and do a cold pressor test (CPT) before and 5 minutes after the exercise. This was the experimental design employed in this experiment. The CPT tests was meant to measure the participant’s pain threshold (latency to start feeling pain) and pain tolerance (latency to pull out the limb from the water). To conduct the experiment two thermometers, stop watches and two bowls of ice water were used. These equipments were set up in the field next to the tennis court which was an appropriate and convenient place for those who volunteered to participate in the experiment. The ice water temperature was set to 1.50C and maintained within the range of minus or plus 0.50C throughout the experiment. This was done by stirring the water manually every 30 seconds. To begin the experiment each participant was asked to immerse his/her left hand into the bowl containing cold water and keep it in as long as he/she could. Subsequently, the participant as instructed was to signal when he/she starts to feel pain (aversive but tolerable) and pull out his/her hand when it becomes (too aversive to tolerate). This duration observed was recorded. The other remaining participants also undertook the same process with five minutes interval between each other. The maximum immersion duration for all the participants was three minutes. However, the participants were not to use their watches and also not be told about the maximum duration of immersion. After the first immersion test (CPT), every participant exercised by running at their own pace for ten minutes. This duration was timed such that when the ten minutes had lapsed I informed the participant that the ten minutes were over. Each participant subsequently did a post exercise CPT five minutes after the completion of the ten-minute exercise. The participant as instructed was to signal when he/she starts to feel pain (aversive but tolerable) and pull out his/her hand when it becomes (too aversive to tolerate). The immersion duration record for the post exercise CPT was also taken for all the participants in the experiment. Results The statistical analysis of the experiment data in Table 1 shows that a total of 15 volunteers with a mean age of 22.8 years participated in the experiment. The youngest participant was aged 18 years while the oldest participant was aged 40 years. Out of the 15 participants, 10 were females with a mean age of 21.5 years and a standard deviation of 5.84. The total number of male participants on the other hand was five (5) and their mean age was 25.4 years with a standard deviation of 8.99. Table 1 Age Report Gender Mean N Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum F 21.5000 10 5.83571 19.00 38.00 M 25.4000 5 8.98888 18.00 40.00 Total 22.8000 15 6.97137 18.00 40.00 Table 2 includes the paired samples statistics generated using SPSS; for the first pair (pair 1) representing threshold, the pre-threshold mean of the 15 participants is 22.94 seconds, the standard deviation is 15.87 and a standard error of the mean is 4.10. The post-threshold mean of the 15 participants is 38.61 seconds with a standard deviation of 30.01 and a standard error of the mean of 7.75. The mean age for males was higher than that of females with a higher standard deviation meaning the males in the experimental study were older than females and had a wide difference in age. Typically, the results support the observation that older men were willing to exercise as compared to older women. Table 2 Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Pair 1 Threshold1 22.9367 15 15.87054 4.09775 Threshold2 38.6133 15 30.01385 7.74954 Pair 2 Tolerance1 73.9147 15 51.50143 13.29761 Tolerance2 88.5333 15 57.97086 14.96801 The results for the second pair (pair 2) representing the tolerance level shows that the pre-tolerance mean of the 15 participants in the experiment is 73.91 seconds with a standard deviation of 51.50 and a standard error of the mean of 13.30. The post-tolerance mean for the 15 participants is 88.53 seconds, a standard deviation of 57.97 and a standard error of the mean of 14.97. From the paired sample t-test as illustrated in Table 3, using 5% level of significance, a t-statistic= -3.040 and a p-value of 0.009 was established for pair 1 (threshold). For the pair 2 (tolerance), a t-statistic= -2.208 and a p-value of 0.044 was determined using the same level of significance of 5%. The results obtained infer that there was a significant difference in the time of exercise and tolerance. The mean tests obtained showed that participants who had lower intensity of exercise were able to tolerate to a lesser degree, the pain. Similarly, higher degree of exercise increases the level of tolerance by increasing the time to complete the exercise. It means that the body mechanisms adjust to the action by increasing the endurance levels if the strain is perceived to be higher. Table 3 Paired Differences 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference t df Sig. (2-tailed) Lower Upper Pair 1 Threshold1 - Threshold2 -26.73522 -4.61811 -3.040 14 .009 Pair 2 Tolerance1 - Tolerance2 -28.82075 -.41658 -2.208 14 .044 The table above gives the closeness of paired samples where the paired group 1 has a t-value which is greater than both lower and upper values. Given that p=0.05, the values of t for both pairs are above the lower and upper bounds. It shows that at 5% level of significance, for pair 1 (threshold1 – threshold2) the t-statistic= -3.040. This t-statistic value falls outside the 95% confidence interval but in the upper critical region tail. The p-value=0.009 < 0.05, therefore we can conclude that aerobic exercise increase pain thresholds hence reduces pain perception. For pair 2 (tolerance1 – tolerance2) the t-statistic= -2.208 and a p-value of 0.044 was determined using the same level of significance of 5%. The t-statistic (-2.208) falls outside the 95% confidence interval thus there is no enough evidence to show that aerobic exercise increases pain tolerance. Discussion The number of female participants in the experiment was significantly more than the male participants in the same experiment. Thus, the outcome of the experiment may include bias towards female with regard to the influence of aerobic exercise on pain perception. From the paired samples statistics generated using SPSS; the pre-threshold mean of the 15 participants is 22.94 seconds while the post-threshold mean of the 15 participants is 38.61 seconds. Hence, after the exercise the threshold duration of the participants in the experiment increased. The pre-tolerance mean of the 15 participants in the experiment is 73.91 seconds while the post-tolerance mean for the 15 participants is 88.53 seconds. Comparing the means of the tolerance measurement before and after the exercise, it is evident that there was increased tolerance after exercise. The comparison of the means of threshold and tolerance before and after the exercise strongly suggest that aerobic exercise reduces pain perception. This is because the threshold and tolerance durations after the exercising was longer compared to that threshold and tolerance duration before the exercise was done. However, to draw conclusions from the experiment, further statistical data analysis and interpretation is required. We formulate a null hypothesis H0 and test it against an alternative hypothesis H1 as stated below; H0: Aerobic exercise DOES NOT reduce pain perception Vs H1: Aerobic exercise reduces pain perception To test the null hypothesis, a paired sample t–test is done at 5% level of significance. For this case the t-test in the more appropriate test. This is because the population mean and variance of threshold and tolerance measurements are unknown and a small sample size of participants, N=15 are used in the experiment. At 5% level of significance, for pair 1, this t-statistic value falls outside the 95% confidence interval but in the upper critical region tail. The p-value=0.009 < 0.05, therefore we can conclude that aerobic exercise increase pain thresholds hence reduces pain perception. For pair 2, the t-statistic (-2.208) falls within the 95% confidence interval thus there is no enough evidence to show that aerobic exercise increases pain tolerance. Hence, from the data analysis and hypothesis testing we conclude that aerobic exercise increases pain threshold level however there is lack of significant relationship between exercise and pain tolerance to conclude that aerobic exercise increases pain tolerance. Therefore, further studies should be done to establish if aerobic exercise significantly increases pain tolerance. However, less biased samples should be used to conduct the experiments. This is because for this experiment the number of females was significantly more than the male participants in the experiment. From the analyses, it can be concluded that aerobic exercise reduces pain perception. The null hypothesis that aerobic exercises does not reduce pain is rejected and the alternative accepted, that aerobic exercises reduce pain perception. References Smith D. (2004) The effects of competition and exercise on pain perception. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10066/737 Koltyn, K. (2002). Exercise- Induced Hypoalgesia and Intensity Exercise. Sports Medicine, 32(8), 477-487. Drury D., Greenwood K., Stuempfle K., Koltyn K. (2005). Changes in pain perception in women during and following an exhaustive incremental cycling exercise. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine 4(2005):215-222. Retrieved from http://www.jssm.org/vol4/n3/1/v4n3-1pdf.pdf Hoffman, M. &Hoffman, D. (2007). Does aerobic exercise improve pain perception and mood? A review of the evidence related to healthy and chronic pain subjects.Current Pain Headache Reports,11(2):93-7. Nichols, D. &Glenn, T. (1994).Effects of aerobic exercise on pain perception, affect, and level of disability in individuals with fibromyalgia.Physical Therapy, 74(4):327-32. Paalasmaa P. & Kemppainen P. & Pertovaara A. (1991), Modulation of Skin Sensitivity by Dynamic and Isometric Exercise In Man. European Journal of Applied Physiology 1991(62): 279-85. Padawe, W. & Levine, F. (1992). Exercise induced analgesia: fact or artifact? Pain, 48: 131-135. Lisa, M.S. (2011). Essentials of Biostatistics In Public Health, Jones & Bartlett Learning Conover, W.J. (2005). Practical Nonparametric Statistics, New York: Wiley & Sons. Rosner, B. (2000). Fundamentals of Biostatistics, California: Duxbury Press. Motulsky, H. (1995). Intuitive Biostatistics, New York: Oxford University Press. Lea, M., & Duck, S. W. (1982). A model for the role of similarity of values in friendship development. British Journal of Social Psychology, 21, 301-310. McCarthy, B., & Duck, S. W. (1976). Friendship duration and responses to attitudinal agreement-disagreement. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 15, 377-386. Vaughan, G. M., & Hogg, M. A. (1995). Introduction to social psychology. Sydney, Australia: Prentice Hall. Kandel, D. B. (1978). Similarity in real-life adolescent friendship pairs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 306-312. Read More

The significant role of anaerobic exercise in mood improvement based on the outcomes of various experiments is almost certain. However, the role of aerobic exercise on pain perception is still a subject of great debate amongst various researchers. Great contention and debate about the findings of various research projects have been witnessed with some researchers arguing that the approach used during the study affected the outcome of the research. However, most researchers seem to agree that aerobic exercise plays a major role in pain reduction even thou some of the researchers still believe that this is not the case.

Since most of the studies are based on individuals with pain, a group of researchers has recommended that for reliable conclusions to be made then pain free individuals and other individual with various chronic pain conditions should be included in the research to reduce bias. Drury, Greenwood, Stuempfle and Koltyn (2005) the researchers conducted a study with healthy females included only as participants. The objective was to evaluate the changes in the perception of pain in the course and after exercise.

Pain assessment of the participants was done before and after a high intensity cycling competition. Data collected at baseline from the participants included: heart rate, oxygen uptake, pain tolerance and pain threshold. The conclusion of the researchers’ work was that decreased sensitivity to pain in women occurs during and after exercise. Subsequent research by Drury et al. (2005) showed that aerobic exercise significantly altered pain sensitivity regardless of gender. Most of the studies mentioned above showed positive outcomes on the influence of aerobic exercise in the reduction of pain perception.

However, some other research studies failed to establish such similar relationships. Padawer and Levine (1992) reported that the hypoalgesia derived from exercise is due to the repeated pain testing but not the effect of aerobic exercise. Such varied and conflicting conclusions as showed in the studies stated above may have resulted due to different choices of pain stimuli used by the different researchers. For instance, Padawer and Levine conduct their research using a cold presser test (CPT) but Koltyn et al.

used a pressure pain stimulus to conduct his study. Objective To investigate and establish the effect of exercise on pain perception Hypothesis Aerobic exercise does not reduce pain perception Method Outlines the procedures of conducting the experiment and include; i) Participants The aim of the experiment is to investigate the effect of exercise on pain perception. For this particular experiment, I gave volunteers from a tutorial group in college instructions on how to participate and proceed with the experiment.

This included a total of 15 participants who volunteered for the experiment. ii) Procedure Each of the volunteering participants is to exercise for 10 minutes and do a cold pressor test (CPT) before and 5 minutes after the exercise. This was the experimental design employed in this experiment. The CPT tests was meant to measure the participant’s pain threshold (latency to start feeling pain) and pain tolerance (latency to pull out the limb from the water). To conduct the experiment two thermometers, stop watches and two bowls of ice water were used.

These equipments were set up in the field next to the tennis court which was an appropriate and convenient place for those who volunteered to participate in the experiment. The ice water temperature was set to 1.50C and maintained within the range of minus or plus 0.50C throughout the experiment. This was done by stirring the water manually every 30 seconds. To begin the experiment each participant was asked to immerse his/her left hand into the bowl containing cold water and keep it in as long as he/she could.

Subsequently, the participant as instructed was to signal when he/she starts to feel pain (aversive but tolerable) and pull out his/her hand when it becomes (too aversive to tolerate).

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