Is It Possible for People to Have False Memories for Sexual Abuse That did not Occur - Essay Example

Is it possible for people to have false memories for sexual abuse that did not occur? Critically evaluate the research on the issue of “recovered memories” to support your view. Thesis statement: Yes, it is possible for people to recover false memories about sexual abuse that did not take place. Abstract Psychology is a discipline that focuses on human behavior and ultimately what dictates it. The research topic; “Is it possible for people to have false memories for sexual abuse that did not occur” is controversial part of the issue on “recovered memories.” It is controversial since there are not solid theories for it or against it. This paper will delve into the reasons that may necessitate recovered memory such as; false memory syndrome, personality disorder, biological protective processes, individually induced hypnotic states, amnesia, retroactive inhibition and betrayal trauma. The paper concentrates on the following questions; research basis which is based on the findings of a number of psychologist. Links in the line of thought; which is a situation in which a therapist implants false memories in the patient so as to satisfy a line of thought. Inferential mistakes and confirmation bias which is basically misguided findings due to a researcher’s belief and expectation. Deductive fallacies which are the large intensity of controversy that is encouraged by oversimplification and ultimately confusion which provides the basis of fallacies The recovery of false memories is a contentious issue that is still under debate. It has been noted that false memories can be recovered due to a number of reasons and factors that surround an individual. Introduction The recovery of false memories is a contentious issue but there has been evidence of its existence. It has been noted that such occurrences had led to the accusations of people who more often than not did not commit the crimes for which they had been accused of. The false accusations are believed to result in extraordinary pain which has left damaged individuals and ultimately families. Incompetent therapists are believed to be one of the causes of such memories as they instigate them and ultimately believe them. It is believed that recovered memories may stem out of false memory syndrome, retroactive inhibition, personality disorder, amnesia, motivated forgetting, thought suppression, cognitive gating, biological protective processes, retrieval inhibition, individually induced hypnotic states, betrayal trauma and suggestion. This article obtains its information from Daubert and other sources and puts forward the use six sets of cross-examination questions to come up with information that pertain to pseudoscience. Since the situation in which adults recover memories that pertain to false child abuse incidences is still not clear a cross-examination stance has been taken to delve into it causes. The Research Basis The term repressed memories is often used to refer to recovered memories that pertain to false or accurate child sex abuse cases. The following articles have been written as an explanation for repressed memories; “Repressed Memories: A Journey to Recovery from Sexual Abuse (Fredrickson, 1992) and The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse (Loftus & Ketcham, 1994)”. There have been a lot of laboratory experiments that support the idea of the existence of repressed memories. The “Functional Abnormalities of Memory with Special Reference to Amnesia” (Sears, 1936) concentrated on Freud’s discussion that pertained to repression and method in which it could be experimentally examined. After the review of 17 articles (Stewart, 1962) came to a conclusion that repression can be attributed to personality facets. He was also of the opinion that in the future an intense delve on perpetual defense, vigilance and subsection may result to an explanation of repression. Although there is evidence that memories can be lost due to repression; there is counter arguments that prove that the pro arguments do not hold a lot of ground. Despite the aforementioned research data psychologists are still not convinced by the repression concept. (Holmes, 1990) argued that the results obtained from the aforementioned researchers was that the memory related occurrences could be as a result of other repression mechanisms than repression. It can also be explained that Holmes did not find any evidence that could solely be explained by repression. It is also noted that concepts cannot solely be explained by scientific facts since scientific research may be flawed due to the use of confused terms, definitions and concepts. Unclear Terms and Deductive Fallacies Terms such as repression, implanting, directed forgetting, dissociation, retroactive inhibition, amnesia, cognitive gating, clinical syndrome, suggestibility, self-induced trance, biological protective processes, retrieval inhibition and personality when used without unambiguous definition may contribute to confusion, logical fallacies and misunderstandings. The use of interchangeable use of the term “repressed memories” and “recovered memories” have resulted in a great deal of confusion and the contribution to flawed arguments like: recovered memories that pertain to sex abuse must be as a result of repression, the lack of valid experimental evidence of the existence of repression and hence the deduction that there is not any scientific support for memories that are recovered (Evans, 1989). Also; recovered memories that pertain to sexual abuse are a type of repression, there exists experimental research that pertains to repression and hence there exists research that explains the recalling of sex abuse. The large intensity of controversy more often than not encourages oversimplification and ultimately confusion which provides the basis of fallacies. Inferential Errors and Confirmation Bias It is thought that beliefs and expectations are likely to influence the results of a researcher and the research material obtained. It is thus a common occurrence for confirmation bias to be a widely accepted part of inferential error that emanated from human reasoning. Humans claim to have fundamental tendencies to seek data that is in line with their current beliefs, hypotheses and theories. Human beings are therefore inclined to avoid gathering of materials that might potentially falsify their evidence (Cole, 1973). It is therefore very likely that the deductions made with regard to recovered memories by scientists have heavily been influenced by their beliefs or expectations. It is noted that in the process of clinical psychologists addressing memory recollection; they may lead the patient to make deductions that correspond to their very own opinions. This statement is backed up by the works of Pope and Vasquez, 1998 who have proved that therapists have acknowledged detrimental behavior and have used rationalization as part of their solution. It is probable that a great number of us hold beliefs and expectations that is likely to tamper with the collection of experimental data in a manner that is not biased thus leading to deductions that would be lead to fair conclusions. Links in the Chain of Reasoning Using the courtroom scenario; an expert witness enjoys unfettered freedom in the handling of open-ended questions which he uses to form a compelling argument. The expert uses his knowledge to come up with a concept by the linking of pieces of information and ultimately creating his argument which can be likened to a fence that covers a landscape. The naïve attorney could move back in wonder and discouragement. In a manner that suggests that he is oblivious of the individual trees that constitute the forest. The view of the fence in its large reach could ultimately distract the lawyer from the individual pieces of links (Pope, 1996). On the other hand the prudent cross-examiner examines each link with great care and does not allow for any individual assertions to obtain false aura of assertion through their pattern, interconnectedness and finally their number. The bone of contention here is that there exists an epidemic that is constituted by false memories that are put by therapists that provides a paradigm of the keen observation of individual links that comprises a chain of reasoning. Trauma, Amnesia and Psychopathology This argument stands on the point that there is lack of evidence that links trauma to psychopathology or amnesia. For instance, Kihlstrom (1995c) stipulated that there is not anything that is available in evidence that would allow for us to have any type of confidence in any kind of exhumed memory. However, Gleaves objects to this form of reasoning. He objects to this line of thought by giving the following example; “The last part of the sentence is what I find particularly noteworthy (Gleaves, D.H, 1994).  Here you are clearly saying that there is nothing in the available evidence that would allow us to have any confidence that there is a connection between trauma and psychopathology.  I find that to be a very extreme statement.  For example, given that PTSD is a form of psychopathology. Conclusion The recovery of false memories is a contentious issue that is still under debate. It has been noted that false memories can be recovered due to a number of reasons and factors that surround an individual. References Evans, J. (1989). Bias in human reasoning: Causes and consequences. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Freud, S. (1952). A general introduction to psychoanalysis (J. Riviere, Trans.). New York: Washington Square. (Original work published 1924) Freud, S. (1963). Further recommendations in the technique of psychoanalysis: Observations on transference-love. In P. Rieff (Ed.), Freud: Therapy and technique (pp. 167-179). Authorized English translation of the Revised edition by J. Riviere. New York: Collier Books. (Original work published 1915) Freyd, J. J.. & Gleaves, D. H. (1996). "Remembering" words not presented in lists: Relevance to the current recovered/false memory controversy. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 811-813. Gleaves, D.H. (1994). On the Reality of Repressed Memories. American Psychologist, 49, 440-441. Gleaves, D.H. (1995). Dissociation (or any psychopathology) and Trauma. Gleaves, D.H. (1996). The evidence for "repression": An examination of Holmes (1990) and the implications for the recovered memory controversy. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 5, 1-19. Kihlstrom, J.F. (1995c). The trauma-memory argument. Consciousness and Cognition, 4, 63-67. Loftus, E.F. (1988). Memory: Surprising new insights into how we remember and why we forget. New York: Ardsley House. (Originally published 1980) Loftus, E.F. (1995, March/April). Remembering dangerously. Skeptical Inquirer, pp. 20-29. Loftus, E.F., Polonsky, S., & Fullilove, M.T. (1994). Memories of childhood abuse: Remembering and repressing. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 67-84. Pope, K.S. (1994). Sexual involvement with therapists: Patient assessment, subsequent therapy, forensics. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pope, K. S. (1995a, August). Memory, abuse, and strange science: Therapy, forensics. and new research. Award for Distinguished Contributions to Public Service address presented at the 103rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, New York. (Audiotape No. APA9S-245 available from Sound Images, Aurora, CO; telephone: 303-649-1811.) Pope, K.S. (1995b). What psychologists better know about recovered memories, research, lawsuits, and the pivotal experiment. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 2, 304-315. Pope, K.S. (1996). Memory, abuse, and science: Questioning claims about the false memory syndrome epidemic. Invited address for the American Psychological Association's Award for Distinguished Contributions to Public Service delivered at the 103rd Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association. American Psychologist, 51, 957-974. Pope, K.S. (1997). Science as careful questioning: Are claims of a false memory syndrome epidemic based on empirical evidence? American Psychologist, 52, 997-1006. Pope, K.S., & Bouhoutsos, J.C. (1986). Sexual intimacies between therapists and patients. New York: Praeger/Greenwood. Pope, K.S., & Brown, L.  (1996).  Recovered memories of abuse: Assessment, therapy, forensics. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pope, K.S., Butcher, J.N., & Seelen, J. (1999). The MMPI, MMPI-2 & MMPI-A in court: A practical guide for expert witnesses and attorneys (2nd edition). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Pope, K.S., Sonne. J.L., & Holroyd, J. (1993). Sexual feelings in psychotherapy: Explorations for therapists and therapists-in-training. Washington. DC: American Psychological Association. Pope, K.S., & Vasquez, M.J.T. (1998). Ethics in psychotherapy and counseling: A practical guide (2nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Zeller, A. F. (1950). An experimental analogue of repression: Effect of individual failure and success on memory measured by relearning. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 40, 411-422.   Read More