What Is the Interplay between Ageism, Unemployment, and Mental Health in Australia - Assignment Example

What is the Interplay between Ageism, Unemployment and Mental Health in Australia? A Discourse Analysis Name Institution What is the interplay between Ageism, Unemployment and Mental Health in Australia? Introduction Within the Australian context it was suggested nearly a decade ago that there was a substantial ‘lost generation’ of mature-aged unemployed people who were characterized by shrinking horizons and impaired quality of life (Ranzijn, Carson, Winefield & Price, 2006). The shrinking (or narrowed) horizon defined by Ranzijn et.al. (2006) is the personal failing to achieve social expectations once thought to be guaranteed, to a cohort of workers who entered the labour force during a time of sustained economic growth (the 1960’s and 70’s). Furthermore, when this same cohort entered the labour force they did not expect to have to contribute more than ever to their self-funded retirement as is now the case (Ranzijn, et.al., 2006), nor were there Commonwealth Government discussions to advance the pensionable age to 70 years (IGR 2015). Many pre-retirement Australians in the latter part of the twentieth century, believed they would embark on a post-retirement vacation overseas, a road trip around Australia, purchase a new car or provide renovations to the family home (Ranzijn, et.al., 2006). With growing mature age unemployment these social expectations appear less feasible due to a number of interrelated factors: the financial hardship unemployment brings, its impact on mental health outcomes and the effects of ageism on self-identity and significant relationship (Bayl-Smith & Griffin, 2014). The methodology to be employed is proposed to be discourse analysis. Discourse analysts do not share the view that talk is a route to cognition (Willig, 2014). Which is to say, discursive constructions are influenced by perception, by social context and environment. In other words, sometimes people say one thing which is opposed to their thought process. By studying publications and research presented to date, this thesis aims to understand how and to what extent socially and politically sanctioned discourses that at best, undervalue the intellectual and economic benefits that older Australians provide. Or at worst actively discriminate against older Australians, contributing to the marginalized health and employment outcomes of mature-aged people, and provide conditions that promote increased numbers of under and unemployed mature age. This methodological approach is justified as it requires the researcher to adopt an orientation to treat talk and text as social action (Willig, 2014). Social action will attend to discrimination and biases regarding mature age people, with the aim of lessening such prejudices in society. A discourse analysis provides us with a way of thinking about the role of discourse in the construction of social and psychological realities. Search Strategy Many articles exist on unemployment, ageism and mental health. A search strategy was developed to improve the accuracy of retrieved articles. The strategy included a search of online databases such as the National Library of Australia, PsychInfo, PubMed, Medline and CINHAL Plus. The search terms were unemployment, job loss, layoff, job seeker, ageism, aging and mental health. More than two thousand articles were retrieved from the databases. A screening process was initiated to assess the relation of the articles to the topic. The titles, abstracts and publication date of the articles were screened. Articles published between 2006 and 2015 were included in the review. Titles and/or abstracts that mentioned employment, ageism and mental health of Australians were selected for the review. Exclusion criteria included articles whose titles did not include the search keywords; articles published before 2006; opinion or newspaper articles; and articles that did not address Australian population. The selection process narrowed down the articles to 20. Therefore, twenty peer-reviewed articles were reviewed for this study. Discourse Analysis Two studies were used to underscore the labour demographics in Australia. McDonald and Temple (2008) observed that the labour supply in Australia grew at 2 percent per year until 2000 but reduced to 1.2 percent per annum in recent years. They argued that further modelling would have reduced the growth of labour supply to zero percent without the presence of international migrants in the country. Their article reveals that the ageing population creates new labour demands such as healthcare and education. This demand would then increase the participation rate of older workers in the labour market. The article does not associate older workers with diminished productivity but it does assert that there will be a constant decline in the country’s gross domestic product between 2010 and 2025. The per capita gross domestic product (GDP) would then increase due to the ageing population and the retirement of the older workers that represent a large proportion of the labour force. The article, however, does not provide insight into ageism or the barriers that older workers face in the labour market in Australia. However, the article does apply conversationalising by incorporating external tenor or mode coupling. This conversationalising is depicted as personalization of economic and demographic trends in the Australian labour market. This personalisation helps create an intimate environment between the author and the reader. Lack of dramatising in the text is important because it relies on facts rather than storytelling. The National Seniors Productive Ageing Centre (2011) attempts to address this information gap by examining the ageing workforce and the barriers that older worker encounter when they participate in the labour force. According to the article, there is a need to increase the participation of older adults (aged 50 and above) in the labour force through policy initiatives (such as raising the eligibility age for pension from 65 years to 67 years) and legislation such as the Age Discrimination Act. The article adopts a sympathetic approach towards older workers because it focuses on the barriers that hinder the mature worker from engaging in economic development. The barriers are described as care-giving demands, lack of flexible work arrangements, ageism, mental health problems, tax transfer regime, retraining barrier, physical illness, mismatch of employee’s skills with the industry demands, poor trade-off between work and leisure, and re-employment difficulties after long-term unemployment. The article asserts that policy makers need to understand the barriers so that they can develop effective responses to avert the barriers. For instance, the article proposes the Disability Support Pension can help employers to provide wage subsidies and job assistance for disabled workers. On age discrimination, the article asserts that euphemisms such as inflexibility, overqualified and sluggishness should not be used in the workplace because the terms enforce stereotypes about older workers. The article then suggests that older workers can enforce the Fair Work Act, which provides protections against age-based discrimination by employers. The coupling of ideation and evaluation in the text provokes criticism of euphemisms associated with older people in contrast with the appraisal of responses or recommendations for mature age inclusion in the labour force. Unemployment and Mental Health Some articles focused on the link between unemployment and mental health. Wanberg (2012), for instance, reviewed advances in unemployment and re-employment as predictors for mental health. The review showed that there was an increase in unemployment rate in the United States, Taiwan, Spain, Australia and New Zealand. This prevalence was greater among women, minority populations and individuals age between 55 years and 64 years. The article used positive terms to describe the influence of unemployment on the physical and the psychological health of the population. From a psychological perspective, unemployment causes anxiety, depression, suicide and physical complications such as headache. The author uses thematic function to describe the risk factors that lead to poor psychological health and suicide as well as the factors that influence the speed of reemployment. This language helps the reader to understand the negative impact of unemployment on an individual’s psychological wellbeing. In addition, the language emphasizes the need for coping strategies such as self-regulation. The article posits that self-regulation requires effort because unemployed elderly adults may face a number of rejections and become bored, frustrated or discouraged with the job search and their unemployed status. The article also recommends searching for job information through social contacts. This is because social contacts are useful sources of jobs for unemployed and elderly job seekers (Wanberg, 2012). Maimaris, Hogan and Lock (2010) also provide valuable insight into the impact of employment on the mental health of older workers. Their article is sympathetic to the plight of older workers because it approaches the labour market from a social perspective. The article underscores the desire for work due to higher life expectancy and the statutory requirements in some countries that deny the elderly from accessing the labour market. Other countries, due to the impact of the global financial crisis, have increased their retirement age to expand the labour market. The article observes that there has been limited literature that explains how expanding the retirement age affects the mental wellbeing of older workers. Consequently, the authors conduct a qualitative literature review on the effect of working at retirement age on mental health. The findings show that working during the retirement age does not have a negative mental health outcome. Additionally, some studies investigated in the article revealed that post-retirement employment has a positive effect on mental health. The strength of the article is that it confirms that post-retirement employment enhances the mental health of the older population. This outcome supports the creation of a labour market that is accessible to older people and the establishment of national policies that support an increase in retirement age whilst protecting social and health inequalities among the elderly. Ranzijn, Carson, Winefield and Price (2006) evaluate the impact of employing mature aged people in the South Australian workforce. Their qualitative study uses interview data from 27 participants on the quality of their life, expectations and their financial status (long-term and short-term status). The findings showed that there was a large number of older unemployed workers whose future expectations were shrinking and quality of life impaired. The key challenges for unemployed older workers as stated in the article include inability to provide family support, inability to apply personal skills, depreciation of skills and low self-esteem due to devaluation of their skills. The authors use subjective language to convince the reader that the older workforce is a different cohort from younger age groups due to the needs and demands placed on the older generation. The strength of the article is that it proposes policy recommendations to address the needs of middle-aged workers. These recommendations include expanding policies for social exclusions and developing early intervention strategies such as job-specific training or up-skilling for the middle-aged and older personnel. The article uses discursive analysis of the interview to understand the needs and demands of middle-aged employees. This discursive analysis uses Foucauldian principles to answer the question, what is the impact of employing middle-aged workers in Southern Australia? This analysis provides useful insight into the influence of employment versus unemployment on the wellbeing of middle-aged workers in Australia. Ageism and Unemployment Porcellato, Carmichael, Hulme, Ingham and Prashar (2010) investigated the relationship between age and employment. Their study was based on interviews performed on 56 elderly individuals in England. The purpose of the study was to understand the constraints that hinder some old workers from gaining employment and not others. The results showed that older people face a number of constraints in their employment or re-employment due to their health, lack of human capital, undervalued experience, ageism, lack of financial incentives for employers to recruit older employees and negative self-perception. The article uses subjective language to describe the limitations facing older people in the workforce. For instance, the authors assert that low education and skill levels reduce the employability of people aged 50 years and above. Furthermore, some employers do not have the incentives to provide job-specific training to the older personnel because the returns for this training are not assured. In addition, the article posits that ageism reinforces the employer’s tendency to reduce demand for the older worker. The strength of this article is that it provides detailed information on the perceived constraints facing older people in the workforce. The qualitative paradigm used in the study helps reveal the relationship between aging and employment, which provides additional credence to the credibility of the results. From a social and health perspective, the article’s language helps healthcare professionals and scholars to understand the particular constraints facing older workforce (ageism, self-perception, declining health, lack of current skills and undervalued experience). The description of the link between supply and demand of older workers and their health helps explain the current employment status of older people. Furthermore, the Porcellato et al.’s (2010) emphasis on human capital is sympathetic to the challenges of older workers because it highlights the value of older personnel such as cultural wisdom and organizational knowledge. This sympathetic attitude provides a voice to older people as it explains their experiences in the current labour market, the barriers to their employment or re-employment, and the impact of these barriers on their psychological wellbeing. Peeters and Emmerik (2008) establish the link between ageism and unemployment. The purpose of their article is to evaluate studies on the introduction of older workers and their wellbeing. The article asserts that older people undergo mental, cognitive and physical changes. However, the impact of these changes on the wellbeing of older workers in the workplace is not yet ascertained. Consequently, the article posits that the assumptions about older people in the workforce and the impact of their mental and cognitive changes on productivity and performance are not as negative as suggested. The strength of the article is that it provides different conceptualizations on age because it focuses on the aging process rather than the age of an employee. This focus helps the authors to identify key threats to the wellbeing of older workers in the workforce and opportunities for the workplace. The article’s use of textual theme emphasizes the assumptions about ageism and the need to change focus from age as an economic/social factor to the aging process. Peeters and Emmerik (2008) apply conjunctives frequently to improve the cohesion of the text. For instance, the abstract uses conjunctives such as however, recently and next to improve the cohesiveness of the text and underscore the focus of the authors in the study. A text/content evaluation based on system functional linguistic (SFL) shows that the article uses theme as a complement to highlight the difficulty in assessing the association between age and the affect (positive or negative). Temporal thematic expressions are used to emphasize the interplay between age, affect on wellbeing, opportunities and threats to the labour market. This emphasis helps scholars and human resource managers to understand the influence of image on job resources, implications for the organization and the requirements for co-worker support. Filinson (2008) adopts a critical approach to legislation on age discrimination. The critical approach is three-pronged. One criticism is based on a review of the age discrimination laws in the United Kingdom while the second criticism is derived from a comparison of different age discrimination laws in Canada, the United States (US) and Australia. The third criticism is based on an examination of new legislation related to gerontological theory. The strength of the article is that it evaluates and compares the Employment Equality Age Regulation (UK), the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (US), Canadian Human Rights Act and the Australian Age Discrimination Act. This comparison is not based on the author’s experience as required in discursive psychology (Willig, 2014). The comparison is based on facts and does not rely on subjective knowledge. The use of objective knowledge helps the author to explain the benefits of each legislation, exceptions and weaknesses of each law. The results show that the UK law is weaker compared to Australian, Canadian or US law. However, the author argues that the law could be circumscribed by permitting exceptions such as compulsory retirement and restricting applications. The article asserts that gerontological theory does not support any compromise to employment law. The article uses a combination of subjective language and empirical evidence to explain the opposition of mandatory retirement by gerontological theory such as the term ‘deleterious effect’. This subjective evidence supports the article’s discourse on ageism and the impact of age discrimination on employment laws. Gringart, Helmes and Speelman (2011) explore the concept of active ageing by looking at how individuals prolong their working life and the challenges that they face in the workplace. In particular, the article examines the stereotypes towards mature workers and asserts that negative attitudes towards mature workers contribute to employment discrimination. Consequently, the authors develop and instrument to measure these attitudes among workers. Their data collection instrument uses the Attitudes towards Older Workers Scale (AOWS) to assess the attitudes of undergraduate students and recruiters towards the older worker. The findings confirm that the AOWS is a valuable instrument for research, policy formulation and intervention development in the areas of aging and employment. The phrasing and sentence structures used in the article assert the negative attitudes towards older personnel and the impact of the ageist attitudes on the performance and health outcomes of older workers. The formal approach used in the article helps the authors to emphasize the role of population ageing in the modern workforce, the increasing demand for older workers and the trends in mature age employment. For instance, the theme structure shows that older workers have greater priority when firing but last priority during re-employment. The instrument used in the article is useful because it provides a validated tool for assessing organizational attitudes and perceptions towards the older workforce. Brown (2014) explores the experiences of an elderly man in the Australian workplace. The exploration seeks to understand the discrimination faced by one individual named Phil. The ethnographic study uses conversationalism as the author obtains information from the interviewee on workplace discrimination and his experience from having a high-flying career to a contract job. The conversationalist approach is useful because it reveals the intimate speech between the author and the interviewee. The intimate relationship helps the interviewee to open up to the interviewer and to reveal his disbelief, shock and anguish at discriminatory experiences at the workplace. The conversationalist approach draws the sympathy of the reader because it gives personal insight into the emotions of elderly workers facing age-discrimination. The use of personal pronouns also contributes to the personalisation of the text. It helps the author to shift focus from masculinity to depression, mental health and male identity where workplace equality is not guaranteed. The use of terms such as deprivation, tragedy, stripped, and prejudice helps enforce the personalized approach but makes the text appear more subjective and prone to bias from the author. Nevertheless, the strength of the article is that it provides personal insight into the psychological state of older workers experiencing age discrimination. Ageism and Mental Health Some articles focused on the link between ageism and mental health. Angus and Reeve (2006) observed that ageism affects the wellbeing of older populations in the workforce. The article defined ageism as the prejudiced behaviour against the elderly in the workforce or the community. This prejudice is based on stereotypic assumptions about the productivity and the dependency of older people in an era where individualism is highly valued. The authors use subjective language to describe the concepts of successful aging or positive aging as the society’s eagerness to reduce the losses associated with the aging process. The language describes how stereotypical images of aging have endured despite the development of health promotion strategies aimed at promoting healthy aging. The article’s use of the words ‘fear’, ‘prejudice’ and ‘cruel rejection’ affirm societal attitudes and widespread aversion towards the elderly. The description of stereotypical behaviour in the article arouses feelings of sympathy in the reader. For instance, the authors assert that prejudice towards older people by scholars, health professionals and policy makers affect the public and professional life of the elderly. The authors attribute these prejudices to Western values that emphasize strong performance, independence and economic productivity. These values create an unconscious overflow of assumptions about older people such as their need for assistance (dependency) and low productivity. Throughout the article, the Angus and Reeve (2006) reiterate the perpetuation of stereotypical assumptions about the aging population and the infiltration of the stereotypes on global resource strategies. This reiteration also serves another purpose. It helps explain how ageism promotes self-reliance ethos within the context of health science and calls for a solution to combat the stereotype within the ageism context. The proposed solution aims to lower the psychological effect of ageism on the elderly such as loss of self-esteem, ideation of suicide, social isolation and mental decline (such as memory loss). Zsoldos, Mahmood and Ebmeier (2014) examine the relationship between old age and occupational stress. Their research posits that workers face greater occupational stress at work during mid-life, later-life and retirement. The article uses thematic function to explain the impact of occupational stress on mid-life and pre-retirement workers. Interpersonal themes are used to show that unfavourable conditions in the workplace have a negative effect on the psychological and physical wellbeing of the workers. For instance, mid-life men showed higher incidences of depression from a stressful work environment compared to younger men. Similarly, jobs with low control were associated with higher mortality rates compared to jobs with high control among older workers. These high stress incidents were attributed to negative perceptions of older workers by younger workers despite their capabilities such as stability, commitment, loyalty, dependability and conscientiousness (Zsoldos, Mahmood & Ebmeier, 2014, p.88). The research article showed that occupational positions and the nature of the work environment increases the risk of depression and psychological illness among older workers. In addition, the article describes bullying in the workplace as a predictor for depression and post-traumatic stress among older workers. The article uses themes and rheme to demonstrate how bullying of older workers leads to psychiatric illness, thereby lowering the mental wellbeing of older personnel in the workplace. The strength of the article is that it affirms the relationship between ageism and mental illness. The author’s criticism of ageism is important in the article because it reveals how work stress can be a risk factor for depression. In addition, the article reveals how lack of resilience to work stress and age-related bullying exposes the older worker to mental health problems such as psychological disorders. Margo (2013) and Huq and McIntosh (2015) provide insight into the professional management of older workers facing age discrimination in the labour market. Margo (2013) uses positivist attitude to explain the contributions made by older workers such as productivity, dependability, mentorship, work ethic and stability. However, the author acknowledges that despite these work experiences, ageism against the recruitment of older workers prevails. Consequently, the author approaches the concept of ageism from a psychological context. This approach examines the role of counsellors and psychologists in confronting ageism in the workplace. Similarly, Huq and McIntosh (2015) discuss ageism within health practice. Their approach provides a medical based view of ageism such as the effect on the dignity of the older population and the internalisation of negative ideas among older professionals. Both articles provide insight into the relevance of mental health services and the utilization of these services among older workers facing age discrimination. They provide resourceful information on the ethical and professional standards for clinicians that provide mental health services to older workers facing ageism in the workplace. Boudiny (2013) discussed the concept of active ageing within the scientific context to expound on the link between ageism and mental health. According to his article, there has been no consensus on the meaning of ageing. Consequently, the article aims to provide different categories of definitions used since the term was introduced in policy and scientific discourse. The article explains that there is a need to develop a formal definition of active aging because it is different from terms such as productive or healthy aging. This is because the terms are used interchangeably despite their divergent application. The author provides varied interpretations of the term in an attempt to educate the reader on the different forms of aging and dispel current notions on ageism. For instance, an economic orientation of active ageing could involve adapting pension schemes (such as raising the retirement age) to increase labour supply or addressing age-based discrimination in the workplace as a strategy for increasing the demand for older workers such as re-training. Conjunction textual theme used within the article to demonstrate the difference between economic and social orientation of active aging. The article uses conjunctions such as while fourteen times to link sentences or clauses. For instance, a conjunction is used to link one sentence on the health of older adults and the likelihood that ageing causes certain losses in physical and cognitive potential. Conjunctions are used in the article to explain how different attitude values can be observed from the categories of active ageing. The first attitude is the difference in attitudes when developing policies on seniors and policies on ageing. The second attitude refers to the perception towards how people age in an active manner. The article describes this attitude as a dynamic concept where sub-groups (such as the frail) are created to explain active ageing. Another attitude in Boudiny’s (2013) article is the focus on ageing from life engagements rather than economic engagement (with reference to productivity of older workers). This attitude fosters adaptability and eliminates the structural barriers to age. The strength of the article is that it applies correspondent voice. This voice is associated with media text in system functional linguistic (SFL) analysis. In addition, thematic function is applied in most of the text. The theme is coded in simple format and multiple formats such as textual and interpersonal. For instance, the article uses continuatives to enhance the cohesiveness of text explaining the concept of active ageing. The thus continuative is used ten times in the text to make the content more cohesive. Williams, Higgs and Katz (2012) use textual theme to demonstrate the link between sentences on neuroculture, mental health problems and active ageing. Their article reiterates the social interpretation of active ageing as confirmed by Boudiny (2013). The use of conjunctions and continuatives helps link the two clauses and improve the cohesion of the text respectively. For instance, conjunctions such as thus are improve the cohesion of text that differentiates between abnormal and normal standards on aging workforce, demarcates the Third Age and Fourth Age aging periods, and boundaries between illness and health (Williams, Higgs & Katz, 2012). The textual theme helps the reader understand the nature, benefits and drawbacks of neuro-cultural literature. Stenner, McFarguhar and Bowling (2011) address the concept of active ageing in their subjective analysis of ageism. Their article uses thematic analysis on responses from 72 elderly people on their subjective definitions of active ageing. The analysis reveals that active ageing in economic orientation of employment can be interpreted along social, cognitive, psychological and psychological elements. A metafunction analysis of the text used shows that the article uses numerous conjunctives. The conjunctives appear in the introduction section to the conclusion section as a strategy for improving the transition of the text. The conjunctives are added to the text to improve cohesion. For instance, the text uses terms such as following and in addition to make the text cohesive. The use of varied discourse analysis concepts helps the article to convey information on ageing in a direct manner. This helps the reader to develop an objective understanding of the concept of ageism and to assess his or her stereotypes or assumptions about older people in the workplace. Wickrama, O’Neal, Kwag and Lee (2013) examine the impact of middle-age employment on the health status of older workers. Their quantitative study on a subsample of older adults was used to help the authors identify the health outcomes of late employment. Regressive models were used to show that the level of work had an impact on the immediate memory. These changes to the immediate memory occurred due to work status and resulted in depressive symptoms. The article used formal communication approach to demonstrate the links between work status and depressive symptoms. The language used in the article is consistent with studies on social causation because the findings support the associations between work status changes), depression and immediate memory changes in an adult’s later years. The use of scaffolding theory to explain the mental changes from work environments and role theory to explain the impact of work stress on an adult’s psychosocial health helps the reader to form an objective conclusion on the health outcomes of middle-aged employment. The study also uses conversationalism in the discussion section by using the term we. The term enables the authors to take ownership of the findings. It also reminds the reader that the article was written by humans and was prone to weaknesses (limitations) such as limited generalizability of the results, bias from self-reported instruments and the inability to incorporate different work settings (such as part-time work). Conclusion A discourse analysis provides a way of thinking about the purpose of discourse in the construction of social and psychological realities. The paper provides a discourse analysis based on social, economic, demographic and psychological realities of ageism in unemployment and mental health. Twenty articles were selected for the review. Some studies established the associations between ageism, mental health and unemployment. Discourse analysis using Foucauldian method helped answer the question that there is an interplay between ageism, unemployment and mental health. References Angus, J., & Reeve, P. (2006). Ageism: A threat to ‘aging well’ in the 21st century. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 25, 137-152. Bayl-Smith, P., & Griffin, B. (2014). Age discrimination in the workplace: Identifying as a late-career workers and its relationship with engagement and intended retirement age. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44(9), 588-599. Boudiny, K. (2013). ‘Active ageing’: From empty rhetoric to effective policy tool. Ageing and Society, 33(6), 1077-1098. Brown, C. (2014). Phil’s story: An ethnographic drama relating one man’s experience of Australian workplace professional age discrimination. Masculinities and Social Change, 3(3), 248-270. Filinson, R. I. (2008). Age discrimination legislation in the U.K.: A comparative and gerontological analysis. Journal of Cross Cultural Gerontology, 23, 225-237. Gringart, E., Helmes, E., & Speelman, C. (2013). Development of a measure of stereotypical attitudes towards older workers. Australian Psychologist, 48, 110-118. Jackson, M. (2013). Counselling older workers confronting ageist stereotypes and discrimination. In Ageism and Mistreatment of Older Workers (pp.135-144). Netherlands: Springer. Maimaris, W., Hogan, H., & Lock, K. (2010). The impact of working beyond traditional retirement ages on mental health: Implications for public health and welfare policy. Public Health Reviews, 32-45. McDonald, P., & Temple, J. (2008). Demographic and labour supply futures for Australia. Australia Canberra: Demographic and Social Research Institute. Retrieved from http://sarli.com.au/News/Demographic_and_Labour_Supply_Futures_for_Australia.pdf National Seniors Productive Ageing Centre. (2011). 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Journal of Health Psychology, 16(3), 467-477. Huq, A., & McIntosh, M. (2015). Professional and ethical issues in working with older adults. In R.Tribe & J. Morrissey (Eds.), Handbook of Professional and Ethical Practice for Psychologists, Counsellors and Psychotherapists (pp. 197-207). New York, NY: Routledge. Wanberg, C. R. (2012). The individual experience of unemployment. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 369-396. Wickrama, K., O’Neal, C., Kwag, K., & Lee, T. (2013). Is working later in life good or bad for health? An investigation of multiple health outcomes. Journal of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 1-9. Williams, S., Higgs, P., & Katz, S. (2012). Neuroculture, active ageing and the ‘older brain’: Problems, promises and prospects. Sociological Health Illness, 34(1), 64-78. Willig, C. (2014). Discourse Analysis. In J.A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative Psychology: A practical guide to research methods (pp.160-185). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Zsoldos, E., Mahmood, A., & Ebmeier, K. (2014). Occupational stress, bullying and resilience in old age. Maturitas, 78, 86-90. Read More