Aspect of Human Behavior and Characteristics Impacted on the Cause and Outcome of a Fire - Essay Example

Fire investigations Fire safety design has traditionally been governed by regulations and legislation such as NFPA or others issued by various government fire protection departments with an aim of providing standards for designing of escape routes, buildings structural designs, fire resistant materials among other engineering aspects. However, such standards assume the ability to control the behavior of all the buildings occupants as expected in a fire situation without considering individual human behavior especially during emergencies. However, the design of any evacuation model should consider that the initiation, development and consequences of many fires are either directly or indirectly related to the actions or omissions of people associated with the incident scene (Abigael,2007). For instance, it has been noticed that in some fire situations, people have been unable to react immediately after acquiring the cue such as fire signal. This implies that the extent and consequences of most fires is largely dependent on pre-evacuation response behavior as well as the movement processes by those involved. As such, human behavioral aspects during fires have been of great concern to building designers, architects, insurers and occupants of late. This has been necessitated by the need to come up with models that also incorporate human behavioral factors in order to ensure safety and prompt response in-case of fires. This paper discusses the relevant aspect of human behavior and characteristics that have an impact on the cause and outcome of a fire and hence are relevant to the fire investigation. These ranges from factors relevant to the individual, factors relevant to the group, impact of the physical setting as well as impact of the characteristics of fire. Human behavior and characteristics Human behavior in fire situations depends on a number of factors which range from the cause of the fire, the period during which the fire occurs, the type of occupancy in which the fire occurs and whether or not there were warning cues. It should also be noted that people behave differently as individuals and when they are in a group. As such, all this factors come to play in determining human behavior in the emergency. Factors relevant to the individual The characteristics of the individual affect his/her behavior in fire situation in a number of ways. Individuals with physical limitations such as the blind, the deaf, and the disabled may not promptly recognize and hence act appropriately to a fire situation. Similarly, those who are very old, the injured or very young children may be physically incapacitated and hence though they may recognize the fire, they may not act as fast in order to prevent or mitigate the effects of the fire. This explains why children and the old have perished in fire situations where rescue was not forthcoming. The individual’s cognitive comprehension levels also greatly affect the individual’s ability to act before, during and after the fire incident. For instance, children and the mentally challenged may do nothing to avert the situation while drug addicts may actually run towards the fire instead of escaping from it thus endangering their lives ( Bright, 2008). The old on the other hand may take too long to think on the course of action thus acting when it is too late. How individuals behave prior to, during and after a fire breakout will also be greatly determined by their familiarity with the physical setting in which the fire or explosion occurs. It is obvious that people with prior knowledge of the place will know which is the better route of escape, whether there are fire extinguishers and hence put them on etc. In addition, the individual will be better able to accurately determine the fire’s development and progression in a familiar situation than in an unfamiliar one and hence may act more swiftly and appropriately than those who are strange with the physical setting. It is however worth noting that how an individual normally responds to an emergency situation will also greatly affect the cause, development and the outcome of the fire situation (Gibson,2010). For instance, some individuals are known to panic and even breakdown in emergencies hence limiting their ability to act in such situations. For instance, in a house fire that involved a mattress, a woman attempting to extinguish the fire admitted that the damage would have been of a less scale would she not have panicked and hence took longer to decide what to do. Factors relevant to the group How an individual reacts to a fire situation will greatly differ between when alone and when he/she is in a group. The group behavior will also greatly affect the development and outcome of the fire incidence. Group behavior in a fire situation is determined by a number of factors including the size of the group. Research indicates that people react less promptly and appropriately to the sensory cues presented by the fire or explosion when in a group. This delay in response is also directly proportional to the group size where lack of a hurry in acting increases with the increase in the group size (Judie,M2010). It seems that people in a group usually wait for other group members to react to the sensory cues before they can react. Such delays usually lead to increased damage as opposed to a situation involving only an individual and hence he/she reacts promptly. The group structure also influences how both the individual and the group behave towards the fire situation. Generally, formal groups with organized leadership react more promptly and in an organized manner to the fire incident or explosion thus limiting its effect. This is contrarily to an informal group where members may react haphazardly and in a disorganized manner which may be inappropriate which may lead to large scale damaging effects (Paul,2012). More established groups including families and sports clubs tend in act in a more cohesive and caring manner which tends to limit the effects of such fire incidents. In addition, roles and norms in a group will also greatly affect the individual and group behavior in a fire situation. For instance, a group composed of a lower social class, occupational or education status may lack enough knowledge on responding to such emergency situation and hence act in a disorganized manner hence leading to mass damages. On the other hand, a group made of educated members who are of high social class may have the necessary knowledge, skills and resources and hence may act better to the incident (Judie,2010) . The gender composition of the group may also affect how the group and the individual react to the situation. For instance, women may expect men to attempt to put off the fire and hence they may only raise alarms while running away from the fire while men may not raise the alarm immediately but may attempt to put off the fire. Additionally, parents would rather die in the fire while attempting to save their children. Such actions may either lead to rescuing a lot of individuals or lead to increased damages depending on the size and stage of the fire. Impact of physical settings The characteristics of the settings in which the fire occurs not only affect the development and spreading of the fire but also the related human behavior and hence will greatly affect the overall impact of the fire. For instance, where the available exits are located, their number and whether the occupants are aware of them will determine how they react to the incident. If they are not aware, they are likely to act in confusion and anxiety, a situation that may lead to more damages than necessary. In addition, where there are inadequate exits which may be blocked and at times restricted to general use, the occupants may be exposed to harmful effects of the fire and smoke ( Decker 2009). The height of the building in which the fire occurs will also greatly affect individual fire related behavior. For instance, where the building is not too tall, occupants may feel more safe as they can always jump and thus will most likely act in a calm and controlled manner as opposed to acting out of panic and fear. Built in fire safety such as fire alarms also influence human behavior in fire situations. However, such systems need to be accurate at all times since systems that had been inaccurate in the past may not trigger positive action from occupants in case of fire (Paul,2012). In fact, research indicates that verbal communications in-case of fire breakouts are more effective in triggering response as opposed to alarms. At times, alarms may also trigger panic and fear among occupants thus producing inappropriate response. In a fire incident involving old people’s home, the attendant stated that sounding fire alarm would trigger panic and hence disorganized reactions among the old and hence the reason why he used word of mouth. In addition, other fire suppression systems need to be accurate if they are to result in appropriate human behavior during fire incidents. Impact of the fire’s characteristics How the individual or group perceives the threats posed by the fire greatly determines the individual/group behavior in the fire situation. This is in turn determined by the characteristics of the fire. For instance, is the fire manifested by the presence of flames or smoke? Due to limited knowledge of fire dynamics, individuals would tend to be moved to reaction by presence of huge flames while they may just assume that the threat is not big when the flames are not as much (Gibson,2010). As such, they may fail to react even when the small flames pose a great danger which might heighten the fire’s impact. In addition, people might interpret the characteristics of smoke in diverse ways owing to little information on fire. While dense and black smoke has always been viewed as an indication of a highly hazardous fire hence triggering immediate reaction, grey and light smoke may be viewed as an indication of mild fire effects thus and hence occupants may behave differently in such a situation. The individual or group behavior in fire situation may also be affected by the presence of hazardous gases and oxygen deprivation during the fire ( Decker 2009). This is especially so where the toxic gases have been inhaled or where oxygen concentration is too low thus bringing about perceptual and behavioral changes that might cause delays in taking action. As such, this might increase the level of damages caused by the fire. Specific fire incidences The following incidences demonstrate how human behavior can influence the development and the outcome of a fire incident. The Coconut Grove Nightclub Fire (1942) In this case, majority of the people did not know the exits even amongst the staff. As such, most people in the group could not help one another due to the lack of knowledge on the existence of exits. This was in addition to there lacking exit signs hence aggregating the problem. The emergency door had also been closed resulting in many deaths from fumes and the fire itself. In addition, the group reacted in panic and in a disorganized manner with hundreds trying to get out through the main revolving door at once causing it to jam and hence those trapped inside were burnt to death with those outside being (Bright, R, 2007) unable to help them. The end result was massive loss of life where 492 people died. Investigation into the fire blamed the deaths on locked doors and lack of signs to the exits, unfamiliarity and inaccessibility of the exits. In addition, selfish behavior at others expense was blamed to a very small extent as well as crowd irrationality and overreaction due to panic. Paul,D2012 Beverly Hills Super Club fire of 1977 Initially, the people’s behavior was orderly and non competitive where people helped each other. People were willing to let others go first while the elderly were also helped. Even when people began competing, social bonds were maintained for instance families remaining intact and helping their members escape. In other word, close relations were a predictor of mortality. In other words, people died out of love trying to help one another and not through selfishness. This demonstrates that in a group situation, calmness, order and cooperation exists while panic is very rare as it was only a few individuals who were screaming but not the crowd. The fire however claimed 165 lives. Conclusion As discussed above, individual and group behaviors have a bearing on the development and the outcome of a fire tragedy. For instance, while individuals may act faster while alone hence helping the situation, action may be delayed in a group situation as individuals wait for others to react. Prior knowledge of the place also determines whether how people behave and hence the outcome. People with prior knowledge of the building will act faster, in a coordinated manner and are less likely to panic. On the other hand, the outcome in an unfamiliar situation might be very big o to delayed action and panic ( Decker 2009). Individuals’ behavior in a fire situation will also be influenced by their physical abilities as well as their cognitive abilities. The old and the very young for instance may not act as fast as the energetic people both due to their physical and cognitive limitations. People in a group on the other hand may not always behave selfishly or under panic as demonstrated in the case studies. In fact, group behaviors in fires tend to be socially constructed as opposed to being panic stricken. This is especially so where group members knowing each others well. Group membership may therefore play a vital role in collective survival and resilience. As such, engineers, architects and designers should consider both individual and group behavior during fires in designing rescue models for fires in buildings.Abigael,S200Abigael,S200 References: Abigael,S2005, Fire and fire investigation, National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, vol.12,no.19,pp25-30. Bright, R, 2008,Fire investigation :survey and assessment,London, Rutledge. Judie,M2010, The Mythology of Arson investigation,Oxford,Oxford University Press. Paul,D2012, Strengthening Forensic Science globally: The Path Forward, Washington,The National Academies Press. Gibson,B2010, Modern fire investigation procedures and processes,Sydney, Lighthouse Publishers. Decker L2009, Arson Law and Prosecution, New York, JohnWilleys Read More

As such, all this factors come to play in determining human behavior in the emergency. Factors relevant to the individual The characteristics of the individual affect his/her behavior in fire situation in a number of ways. Individuals with physical limitations such as the blind, the deaf, and the disabled may not promptly recognize and hence act appropriately to a fire situation. Similarly, those who are very old, the injured or very young children may be physically incapacitated and hence though they may recognize the fire, they may not act as fast in order to prevent or mitigate the effects of the fire.

This explains why children and the old have perished in fire situations where rescue was not forthcoming. The individual’s cognitive comprehension levels also greatly affect the individual’s ability to act before, during and after the fire incident. For instance, children and the mentally challenged may do nothing to avert the situation while drug addicts may actually run towards the fire instead of escaping from it thus endangering their lives ( Bright, 2008). The old on the other hand may take too long to think on the course of action thus acting when it is too late.

How individuals behave prior to, during and after a fire breakout will also be greatly determined by their familiarity with the physical setting in which the fire or explosion occurs. It is obvious that people with prior knowledge of the place will know which is the better route of escape, whether there are fire extinguishers and hence put them on etc. In addition, the individual will be better able to accurately determine the fire’s development and progression in a familiar situation than in an unfamiliar one and hence may act more swiftly and appropriately than those who are strange with the physical setting.

It is however worth noting that how an individual normally responds to an emergency situation will also greatly affect the cause, development and the outcome of the fire situation (Gibson,2010). For instance, some individuals are known to panic and even breakdown in emergencies hence limiting their ability to act in such situations. For instance, in a house fire that involved a mattress, a woman attempting to extinguish the fire admitted that the damage would have been of a less scale would she not have panicked and hence took longer to decide what to do.

Factors relevant to the group How an individual reacts to a fire situation will greatly differ between when alone and when he/she is in a group. The group behavior will also greatly affect the development and outcome of the fire incidence. Group behavior in a fire situation is determined by a number of factors including the size of the group. Research indicates that people react less promptly and appropriately to the sensory cues presented by the fire or explosion when in a group. This delay in response is also directly proportional to the group size where lack of a hurry in acting increases with the increase in the group size (Judie,M2010).

It seems that people in a group usually wait for other group members to react to the sensory cues before they can react. Such delays usually lead to increased damage as opposed to a situation involving only an individual and hence he/she reacts promptly. The group structure also influences how both the individual and the group behave towards the fire situation. Generally, formal groups with organized leadership react more promptly and in an organized manner to the fire incident or explosion thus limiting its effect.

This is contrarily to an informal group where members may react haphazardly and in a disorganized manner which may be inappropriate which may lead to large scale damaging effects (Paul,2012). More established groups including families and sports clubs tend in act in a more cohesive and caring manner which tends to limit the effects of such fire incidents. In addition, roles and norms in a group will also greatly affect the individual and group behavior in a fire situation.

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