Continuity and Change in Personality as Adults Age - Assignment Example

Assignment one: Literature Review Student’s name Course Institution Date Continuity and Change in Personality as Adult’s Age The study of adulthood personality has a long and vast background that began over 2000 years ago. The study of personality as a developmental, observable fact, however, had to wait for longitudinal studies. Most theories and studies in relation to adult development majorly have a spotlight on change but not on change in personality traits. However, research has shown that personality-trait is more common than personality trait change (Heatherton & Weinberger, 1994). In addition, various studies indicate that when personality change occurs in adulthood is rarely happens with drama. Notable is the fact that these findings on continuity and change in personality as an adult occur with no theoretical explanation for the change. In discussing continuity and change of personality, it is essential for one to take into account the aspects in which this change can occur (Allport, 1937). There are five notable areas in which personality change can occur- coherence, absolute, ipsative, structural, and differential. This study paper seeks to explore the subject of continuity and change in personality as people age. The information in this paper will receive support from various literature reviews on the subject. To address the subject, the study paper will first describe the mechanisms that facilitate personality change, which include genetic factors, environment, psychological functioning, and person-environment transactions. The next part of the paper will provide information describing the counterpart to continuity, the mechanisms that facilitate personality change. These will include a person’s response to contingencies, observational learning, learning generalization, and learning from others’ descriptions of themselves (Smith, 2009). Several studies in to the subject of personality continuity and change have led to an idealistic interest in the subject. Many people have thought that older adults are in common more inflexible, stubborn, acquiescent, and meticulous than younger adults. Indeed, a number of behavioural traits seem to be differing between older and younger adults. The notable changes imply that some perspectives of personality transform, as adults grow older. For this reason, there have been several studies and researches to examine this change in personality between the two age groups. The Berkeley Growth Study, Fels Institute Study, Guidance Study, and Oakland Growth Study did the first studies on continuity and change of personality as people age. Later on, the above studies have all revealed strong consistency in some personality changes and continuity throughout childhood into adulthood. These outcomes are regardless of how the measurement of traits in the studies. The first scientist, Kelly, to examine personality development in young adults found consistency in certain characteristics for close to twenty years between young adulthood and middle age. Later studies on the same subject reported similar consistency in some traits across a 45-year period. The Berkeley studies also indicated considerable developmental continuity (Rebelsky, 1975). Bonn, Duke, Baltimore, and Normative Aging studies later examined personality change and continuity in late life. Stability in late life personality has been demonstrated in varied studies that have used standardized, self-report personality inventories completed directly by the respondents. For example, Baltimore, Duke, and Normative Aging studies employed tests that essentially gauge self-concept of the participant. Siegler and colleagues later revealed that these studies provided minimal evidence of age-related changes during the adult years (Snyder & Lopez, 2009). Other scientists related these little changes in personality at old age with personality organization becoming more stable. At the adult level, a person is already mature enough to decide on which personality to maintain. At this time, the assumption about personality change and continuity was that an individual in adulthood was more concerned with ideas about his or her ideas about oneself. According to Erik Erikson’s late adulthood is the stage of emotional and social development. Adulthood is the final stage of life according to Erikson’s theory, and it comprises of ego integrity and despair. As people become older, many things around them changes and they have to adjust to these changes. In the process, the personality of people at this stage will also change. The changes that occur at this stage include personality changes, learning, intellectual, and memory changes (Lerner & Rossnagel, 1981). Erikson’s theory is helpful as it addresses both personality stability and change in adults. In as much, most adults’ exhibit stable personality; there is a notable change in personality. Erikson links these changes in personality to the few challenges individuals have to face especially in the wake of several changes in life aspects. Being the last stage of life, those who have not achieved their goals will have last minute rush to make the achievements. In the process, the adults maybe forced to change their personality in order to accommodate new things and ideologies (Damon, 2006). There is upcoming evidence that there is a well-built continuity in personality, in later adulthood that goes beyond constancy of self-concept. The articles used in this paper revealed use of different methods of study which researchers reported continuity together with some changes in old age. Schaie and Willis explored change in personality over a seven-year period in a relatively large sample. The participants in this study were more than 3000 with an age range of 22 to 70 at the initial measurement period. The design employed in this study enabled the researchers to investigate age effects free of group effects. The measures in the Schaie and Willis study included paper and pencil tests of speed and flexibility together with self-rating questionnaires. Some scientists questioned the significance and relevance of the measures used in the test because of the test and speed aspect. However, Schaie and Willis came up with impressive results on the study. The period the study took place was sufficient to measure the changes in personality of the participants. The study methods were impressive because, in seven adult years, there is little change in personality traits among people in similar age group. In addition, the researchers reported clear generational variances in personality traits that they related to prior socialization processes. There concluding message on this study is that there has been extreme misconception of generational differences and age changes. Just like in Erikson’s theory on development, change in personality can occur at any stage of life. It is, therefore, difficult to align change in personality at the adult stage to age (Erikson & Erikson, J.1997). This change in personality can possibly occur in other stages of life and not only adulthood. As a person grows, we expect several changes to take place and adulthood is one of the stages. Being the last stage of life, there can be notable growth and development that may influence the personality of the individual. The next article on the subject is by Lindberg, Hagberg, Samuelson, and Dehlin that examines the stability of a measure of cognitive style. The study involved Swedish men and women in the late adulthood. The study reported strong stability in personality dimension in about 75 to 80% of those who took part in the survey. The outcomes of this study highly related to those which had previously employed the self-report measures (Caspi, 1987). The notable change in personality, in this study, leaned towards the field of dependency. This personality change in terms of dependence and independence would be quickly followed by death within ten years. Vaillant came up with an extraordinary study that relied on prediction of personality change in relation to the ancestors’ survival, mental health and physical health. In addition, the researchers in this study examined the psychosocial qualities signifying perspectives of personality. Vaillant study gauged the maximum life span of both parents and all four grandparents. This would be helpful in predicting the chances of personality change and continuity. The logic behind the Vaillant study was to determine the survival age of different people. Knowing that one’s ancestors lived up to a certain age had an impact on the personality of the participants. For instance, having lesser chances of attaining a certain age limit because of historical information can lead to depression. The individual in this case will have negative personality, which may not have been the case when they were still young. In this case, the study revealed that future time perspective would have an impact on the person’s attitude, life contentment, and other personality traits. For this reason, the study concludes that there are cases of longevity in personality depending on the ancestral background of the individual. Proper attitudes in line with life that in turn influences personality can be transferred from one lifetime to the next (Miller, 2002). Millsap and Field researched on the survivors among Berkeley Older Generation study participants. The research used traditional methods of measurement that came up with five traits in relation to personality continuity. Energy is one of the traits that are correlated with health and probably influenced by circumstances. This research supported the ideology of continued development even in old age. In this research, the researchers defined developmental change at this age group as unidirectional, orderly, enduring, and self-generated acquisitions of better qualities, which replace or improve the initial deficiencies. In this type, of researches continuity should not be confused with stability and constancy, as the terms are not equivalent. Some studies support the aspect of continued personality in the human beings. For instance, Jerusalem Study of Psychological Development during the middle and later adulthood life indicate that personality is a self-motivated system and an ongoing progression until one dies. All the above studies had results that indicated that even in adulthood there is continuity and change in personality. The outcomes of this study strongly relate to Baltes’ life span perspective. According to Baltes development is a life long process which has seven characteristics (Baltes & Staudinger, 1996). The psychologist states that individuals continue to develop and change from birth time to their time of death. It is not right to state that a particular age dominates development (Berk, 2010). Development is a multidimensional process that comprises of cognitive, biological, and socio-economical elements. In addition, development is multidirectional in that some elements of the dimension can increase in growth while others can decrease. Baltes also describes the development as multidisciplinary and plastic. From this perspective, personality change is possible at all stages of life and, therefore, the change can occur even in adulthood. In the event, there is no personality change then the adult experiences continuity in personality. However, this continuance and change is subject to various factors both internal and external. The personalities, which are genetic, tend to be stable in all individuals hence may not exhibit any changes even in old age. Genes are the internal factors that influence a person’s personality. Genetics facilitate continuity in personality, as traits can be highly heritable. In addition, age related, mean level differences are largely because of genetic influences. On the external factors, which determine personality of an individual the prominent example is social, structural influences. From the above studies, it is evident that social, structural effects are so strong and all encompassing that they too, promote constant personality characteristics. Environment affects personality change on a broader perspective. The main debate is that the complicated relations between a person and his or her surrounding result in changes, in personality that will take place throughout the individual’s life. In as much as there is considerable stability in personality, the study emphasizes that personality remains susceptible to the pressures of life and potential socialization effect of life experiences throughout adulthood. A person’s personality can change across the lifespan in several possible ways. Mainly, self-insight, social roles, social learning processes, social environments, and life events can have significant impacts on the personality of people at all stages of life. To conclude the above discussion, the various studies and researches provide evidence for continuity and change of personality in adulthood. Continuity was present in the structure of personality across the age and time factors. The notable continuity structures in personality came with some elements of change. Continuity of personality can, therefore, be understood as a natural form of behavioural force. The possibility for change of personality perhaps as dynamic adaptation to life situations, events, developmental tasks, and other effects can be both real and realized. The evidence of change and continuity of personality receive support from psychologists. Erikson defines wisdom, which comes at the adulthood stage of life, as a detached concern with life in anticipation of death. It is, therefore, logical to state that personality change and continuity occurs in adulthood stage. References Allport, G. W. (1937). Personality: A psychological interpretation. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (1996). Interactive minds: life-span perspectives on the social foundation of cognition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Berk, L. E. (2010). Exploring lifespan development (2nd ed., International ed.). Boston, Mass.: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson. Caspi, A. (1987). Personality in the life course. Journal of Persoanlity ans Social psychology, 53, 1203-1213. Damon, W. (2006). Theoretical models of human development (6th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. Erikson, E. H., & Erikson, J. M. (1997). The life cycle completed (Extended version / ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. Heatherton, T. F., & Weinberger, J. L. (1994). Can personality change?. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Lerner, R. M., & Rossnagel, N. A. (1981). Individuals as producers of their development: a life- span perspective. New York: Academic Press. Miller, P. H. (2002). Theories of developmental psychology (4th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. Rebelsky, F. (1975). Life the continuous process: readings in human development. New York: Knopf . Smith, M. C. (2009). Handbook of research on adult learning and development. London: Routledge. Snyder, C. R., & Lopez, S. J. (2009). Oxford handbook of positive psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Read More