Using Health Psychology Sixth Edition Book - Coursework Example

Name) Psychology (Date) Reflection Journal-Using Health Psychology Sixth Edition Book A. The Body's Physiological Systems The physiological systems of the body include the endocrine system, the immune system, the nervous system, the digestive system, the cardiovascular system and the respiratory system. These systems depend on one another in their functions in complex yet fulfilling way. a. The Nervous System The nervous system is endowed with great complexity and it is also highy specialized of the systems. The billions of neurons within this system are responsible for the control and coordination of all functions within the body. The nervous system comprises two subsystems and these are the central and the peripheral nervous systems. The central nervous system takes into account the brain and the spinal cord while the peripheral nervous system encompasses the entire count of neurons in the nervous system except those found in the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is still subdivided further. The subdivisions are the somatic nervous system, the enteric nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system, which performs nervous functions that are not under conscious nervous system, is divided into sympathetic, enteric and parasympathetic nervous systems. The sympathetic part reacts to anxiety or stress, the parasympathetic functions during sleep or relaxation while the enteric system is responsible for management of all aspects related to digestion. The somatic nervous system plays the role of receiving external stimuli and coordinating body movement. The functioning of the extensive nervous system is made possible through the help of nerves and neurons within the network. These nerves and neurons help in transmitting signals from one point of the system to another through an impulse transmission process. The neurons are classified into two depending on whether they transmit signals to the brain or from the brain. Those that respond to stimuli by passing the signal to the brain are called the sensory neurons while those that receive information from the brain to pass to other parts of the body are called motor neurons. When the sensory neurons receive information from sensory quarters, like skin or eyes, they transmit the information to the brain which processes the information and sends appropriate signals to other parts of the body to react upon the information. All this process is aided by electrochemical signals. Since the brain is the central processor in the nervous system and divided into parts with each part being responsible for control of functions of different parts of the body, there must be proper coordination between the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system for the whole system to function properly. b. The Endocrine System The endocrine system comprises hormones and glands that produce them. The hormones are the chemical couriers of the entire body and help in the transfer of information to specific centers within the body. Among the emphasized roles of the hormones are regulation of body metabolism, regulation of growth and sexual development. The main function or responsibility of the endocrine system is maintenance of body homeostasis (ensuring maintained stable environment within the body) and through this function, the endocrine system is responsible for promotion of appropriate body structural changes. For instance, the endocrine system is responsible for secretion of hormones that bring about development of sexual organs. The endocrine system functions with the help of eight major glands as discussed below (Sarafino 2008). Thyroid gland, which is situated within the neck region in the lower part, is responsible for production of triiodothyronine and thyroxine which regulate the rate of cellular energy consumption. The functioning of the thyroid gland depends on the pituitary gland for secretion of thyrotropin. Even though hormones secreted by the thyroid gland help in bone growth and brain development in children, just the right amount should be produced. Adrenal glands, located on the kidneys, are the ones responsible for secretion of adrenaline that boosts blood pressure and increases heart rate during when there is stress. Hypothalamus is a collection of highly specialized cells found in the central part of the brain and acts as the main link between the nervous system and the endocrine system. The cells in this gland are responsible for regulation of hormone secretion by the pituitary gland through a mechanism that either suppresses or stimulates hormone secretions. Parathyroid gland consists of four tiny glands appended to the thyroid gland. The parathyroid hormone secreted from these glands functions as calcium ions regulator in blood. This hormone works in conjunction with calcitinin produced by the thyroid gland. Pituitary gland is the most significant gland in the endocrine system and is located below the hypothalamus gland in the brain. From this gland, hormones are secreted that agitate the thyroid glands to secrete thyroid hormones, others stimulate the adrenal glands, stimulation of growth, and also hormones that lower feeling of pain (endorphins). The pineal gland, which is found at the bottom of the center of the brain, secretes melatonin which in turn helps in regulation of sleeping cycle. The pancreas is a fundamental component of the digestive system as it is responsible for secretion of digestive enzymes. In addition, it secretes glucagons and insulin that regulate body glucose levels. The Gonads (reproductive glands) are responsible for secretion of sex hormones; estrogen and testosterone depending on the sex of the individual. Ovaries produce estrogen in females while testes secrete testosterone in males. The main organ of the respiratory system is the lung and this is where a majority of the processes that comprise respiration take place. The lungs have alveoli, which are the basic unit of the respiratory system and this is the center of gaseous exchange. At a basic level, we can understand respiration as a process that supplies the body systems with the much needed oxygen and helps the systems in getting rid of gaseous wastes resulting from bodily metabolic processes. c. The Respiratory System This is the system that is responsible for intake of air and exhalation and is comprised of five basic organs. These are the nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi and the lungs. The respiration process essentially begins at the nose when we breathe in. nevertheless, the mechanism that initiates this process does not originate in the nose but within the body. The nostrils have hair that purifies the air we breathe in by trapping any dust particles. The larynx, which connects the trachea to the pharynx is not strictly a member organ of respiratory system but plays an important role of preventing food from going to the trachea during swallowing. The bronchi provide passage of air to the lungs from the trachea. Bronchi are lined with mucus secreting cells which helps keeping the lining of the walls warm and moist. Glucose within the body needs to be burned to provide energy and the respiratory system works to provide this oxygen up to the cells that need it. Conversely, carbon dioxide and other gases are produced during the process and high concentration in the body may lead to intoxication. The respiratory system helps in removal of these gaseous wastes. Understanding the working of the system is essential in preventing and managing many respiratory disorders and diseases. One well known respiratory disorder is asthma, which starts during childhood and may get worse with age, results from the inflammation of the lungs. Exposures to allergens, extreme physical activity or climate are some of the causes. Another disorder is cystic disorder, which results from genetic abnormality passed down the genetic tree. This affects the mucus glands and prevents proper secretion of the mucus making the system vulnerable to build-up of toxic bacteria. Smoking and exposure to carcinogenic substances can lead to yet another serious disorder: lung cancer. It is recommended to quit smoking or never start. The list of these disorders is in no way comprehensive but aims to provide at least an illumination into the importance of ensuring that the air we breathe is clean and we don’t expose ourselves to substances that may harm the normal functioning of the respiratory system; and this of course affects other systems as they are interdependent. d. The Digestive System Digestion is a metabolic process that ensures supply of energy to the body cells. The food we take is digested first before being taken to the body cells in simpler usable constituents hence it is important to eat appropriate foods and maintain a proper digestive health. From the mouth to the anal opening, digestive system comprises several other organs that play varied roles in the metabolic process of digestion. This system works in close coordination with the nervous system and the cardiovascular system. e. The Cardiovascular System This system comprises the heart, blood vessels, blood and its constituents and the spleen. It performs three major functions in the body. Firstly, it plays the role of transportation of various materials to and from the cells within the body. Materials transported include oxygen from the lungs to the body cells, gaseous wastes from cells to waste removal centers like kidneys and lungs, and food nutrients from the digestive system to the body cells. Secondly, it offers protection to the body against infections by production of white blood corpuscles and antibodies which fight foreign bodies. Lastly, homeostatic regulation is important and the cardiovascular system regulates concentration of ions in the body. The heart pumps blood which is transported through the blood vessels to the entire body and back. The spleen manufactures white blood corpuscles and also stores blood. When there is an urgent need for more blood in the cells, the heart needs to pump more hence increased heart rate. f. The Immune System The role of providing defense to the body against antigens is vested on this system. This system comprises a team of special cells which include T and B cells (destroy infected cells), macrophages and neutrophils (engulf foreign antigens), MHC and Co-Stimulatory molecules (bind to antigens to reveal vital information), cytokines and chemokines (regulate surrounding immune system) and antibodies which help in removal of antigens. B. Stress and Stress-Related Illnesses When there is need for a physiological adjustment or response due to a specific change (the change could be physiological or psychological and the body does not differentiate between them but it reacts the same way), the body’s physiological systems react. This reaction is called stress. While the effects of this reaction (stress) can be positive, they can also be detrimental to the general health of the systems that respond to the certain change. One of the positive aspects of these reactions or stress responses is that we are kept alert and thus keep danger at bay. Andreassi (2006), notes “Attention is closely allied to arousal and wakefulness and, like wakefulness and consciousness, appears to be a graded phenomenon extending from general alerting, as in the orienting reflex, to specific alerting, as when attention is focused upon a given sense mode and dominates sensory input to the point of exclusion of other sense modes” (Andreassi 95) However, continued exposure to stress may result into physical illness. When the Sympathetic Nervous System is aroused due to a change in the immediate environment that requires immediate adaptation, the physiological need of the body results to increased blood pressure due to increased heart rate, increased perspiration, heightened acuity in vision and hearing (meaning that an individual becomes more alert) and limbs become cold since most blood flows to the larger muscles. The following are some of the illnesses that come as a result of continued stress in an individual: I. Heart attack and High Blood Pressure As noted above, stress results to increased heart rate causing increased blood pressure within the circulatory system. Although this is always meant to be a short term response to allow an individual maneuver out of danger or perceived situation, continued exposure can result to undue stress on the walls of the blood vessels. Since the circulatory system also comes under continued demand for supply of more blood, this demand is transferred to the heart hence resulting to heart attack. That is not the only negative side of increased blood pressure within the circulatory system. High pressure can result to bursting of the vessels in the brain leading to stroke. II. Insomnia and Chronic Fatigue Exposure to a stressor results to secretion of stress hormone to counteract the situation and this is meant to make necessary stimulations for preparing to handle the impending external situation or stressors. Prolonged exposures to these stressors may lead to sleep disorder (insomnia). As we had seen above, one of the effects of the response unleashed against an external stressor is to make the body alert and therefore if this continues for a long period, insomnia results and eventually chronic fatigue as the body does not get sufficient relaxation. III. Ulcers The digestive system also acts in reaction to the effects of stress in one or two ways. First, secretion of excess acids into the stomach may render the stomach linings weak and ultimately destroy the lining. In addition, since stress leads to contraction of muscles of the body (and it does not spare the muscles of the digestive system), this results to incomplete food digestion hence constipation easily occur. Given the excessive secretion of stomach acids, destruction of the walls results to perforations or ulcerations on the walls. IV. Irritable Bowel Syndrome Even though irritable bowel syndrome is caused by a number of factors, stress is one of the most significant of the factors. The above list may not be a comprehensive list of the effects and illnesses that result from stress, it is important to note that stress is a serious threat to the functioning of the physiological systems of the body just as it is good in helping the very systems respond to actual or perceived stressors. Stress has also been connected to obesity in that stress may easily cause individuals to engage in comfort eating. Other conditions that become exacerbated include pain and body aches, eczema and other skin conditions, autoimmune diseases and depression. Shahar et al (2010), note that illness-related stress highly predicts depression. Although muscle movement during mastication can help in usage excessive energy generated and help in relaxing down the muscles, if this goes on for a longer period, it can lead to weight gain and ultimately lead to obesity. C. Stress Management and Coping Strategies It is evident from the above illnesses that stress requires proper strategies to manage, or cope with it so that it does not become detrimental to the systems’ proper functioning. Some of the methods that can help an individual cope with stress include: a) Forming a strong support network of family members and friends to act as buffer against the stressors- Being lonely and isolated can aggravate stress and bring more vulnerability to its negative effects. b) Developing strong sense of control and confidence in self and ability to overcome challenges c) Developing an optimistic attitude and accept changes that come in life d) Searching for knowledge on stressful situations in life and developing appropriate preparation to handle them e) Putting emotions under control- Cohen et al (2008), stress that emotion-focused coping and avoidance are significant coping and management strategies for stress Reference: Andreassi J., L (2006) "Psychophysiology: human behavior and physiological response" Washington DC; Routledge Cohen, M., Ben-Zura H., & Rosenfeld M., J. (2008) "Sense of Coherence, Coping Strategies, and Test Anxiety as Predictors of Test Performance among College Students" International Journal of Stress Management 15 (3): 289-303 Sarafino E. P. (2008) “Health Psychology: Bio-psychosocial Interactions.” 6th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons Shahar, G., Weinberg, D., McGlashan T. H., & Davidson, L (2010) "Illness Related Stress Interacts with Perception of the Self as Ill to Predict Depression in Psychosis” International Journal of Cognitive Therapy 3 (2): 202-210 Read More

Since the brain is the central processor in the nervous system and divided into parts with each part being responsible for control of functions of different parts of the body, there must be proper coordination between the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system for the whole system to function properly. b. The Endocrine System The endocrine system comprises hormones and glands that produce them. The hormones are the chemical couriers of the entire body and help in the transfer of information to specific centers within the body.

Among the emphasized roles of the hormones are regulation of body metabolism, regulation of growth and sexual development. The main function or responsibility of the endocrine system is maintenance of body homeostasis (ensuring maintained stable environment within the body) and through this function, the endocrine system is responsible for promotion of appropriate body structural changes. For instance, the endocrine system is responsible for secretion of hormones that bring about development of sexual organs.

The endocrine system functions with the help of eight major glands as discussed below (Sarafino 2008). Thyroid gland, which is situated within the neck region in the lower part, is responsible for production of triiodothyronine and thyroxine which regulate the rate of cellular energy consumption. The functioning of the thyroid gland depends on the pituitary gland for secretion of thyrotropin. Even though hormones secreted by the thyroid gland help in bone growth and brain development in children, just the right amount should be produced.

Adrenal glands, located on the kidneys, are the ones responsible for secretion of adrenaline that boosts blood pressure and increases heart rate during when there is stress. Hypothalamus is a collection of highly specialized cells found in the central part of the brain and acts as the main link between the nervous system and the endocrine system. The cells in this gland are responsible for regulation of hormone secretion by the pituitary gland through a mechanism that either suppresses or stimulates hormone secretions.

Parathyroid gland consists of four tiny glands appended to the thyroid gland. The parathyroid hormone secreted from these glands functions as calcium ions regulator in blood. This hormone works in conjunction with calcitinin produced by the thyroid gland. Pituitary gland is the most significant gland in the endocrine system and is located below the hypothalamus gland in the brain. From this gland, hormones are secreted that agitate the thyroid glands to secrete thyroid hormones, others stimulate the adrenal glands, stimulation of growth, and also hormones that lower feeling of pain (endorphins).

The pineal gland, which is found at the bottom of the center of the brain, secretes melatonin which in turn helps in regulation of sleeping cycle. The pancreas is a fundamental component of the digestive system as it is responsible for secretion of digestive enzymes. In addition, it secretes glucagons and insulin that regulate body glucose levels. The Gonads (reproductive glands) are responsible for secretion of sex hormones; estrogen and testosterone depending on the sex of the individual. Ovaries produce estrogen in females while testes secrete testosterone in males.

The main organ of the respiratory system is the lung and this is where a majority of the processes that comprise respiration take place. The lungs have alveoli, which are the basic unit of the respiratory system and this is the center of gaseous exchange. At a basic level, we can understand respiration as a process that supplies the body systems with the much needed oxygen and helps the systems in getting rid of gaseous wastes resulting from bodily metabolic processes. c. The Respiratory System This is the system that is responsible for intake of air and exhalation and is comprised of five basic organs.

These are the nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi and the lungs. The respiration process essentially begins at the nose when we breathe in.

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