Understanding Personalitys Effects on Health & Illness - Coursework Example

Understanding Personality’s Effects on Health & Illness The growing prevalence of diseases, as well as the discovery of new ones has served as a motivation for society’s overwhelming concern about health and fitness. This has given impetus to the evaluation of lifestyles lived and habits learned over the years that may contribute to one’s present health status. Research has likewise included the study of personality patterns linked to some diseases. “All too often, when dealing with illness, medical investigators (as well as laypersons) think they are asking the question, “Why do people become sick?” but they are really often studying “Who becomes sick?” (Friedman, 2007, n.p). This has given the pathological study of diseases another dimension – that of a psychological one. Myers (1995) has outlined how a person’s coping mechanisms in response to certain life events lead him to either health or illness. If a person’s appraisal of the life event is a challenge; and his personality type is easygoing, non-depressed or optimistic; he has healthy personal habits; and enjoys close and enduring social support, then he has a tendency towards health. On the other hand, if his appraisal of the life event is a threat, his personality type is hostile, depressed or pessimistic; he has poor health habits such as smoking, not enough exercise and has poor nutrition; he lacks in social support, then he has a tendency towards illness. The term “psychosomatic” comes from the root words psyche or mind and soma or body. It described psychologically caused physical symptoms. Lay persons easily dismissed some recurrent symptoms complained about by those deemed feigning illness as unreal or “merely psychosomatic. “To avoid such connotations and to describe better the genuine physiological effects of psychological states, most experts today refer instead to psychophysiological (“mind-body”) illnesses. These illnesses, which include certain forms of hypertension, ulcers and headaches are stress-related.” (Myers, 1995). The persons suffering symptoms from such illnesses are not merely feigning them to have an excuse to avoid stressful situations, but are actually experiencing discomfort. For others who hold prolonged resentment, anger or anxiety and often repress these negative emotions to brew deep inside, such feelings may stimulate an excess of digestive acids that destroy parts of the lining of the stomach or small intestine leading to ulcers. Still for others experiencing chronic stress, the possibility of retaining excess sodium and fluids, together with constriction of the arteries’ muscle walls may lead to increased blood pressure. (Light, et al, 1983). The Type A Personality Certain personality types were observed to be more likely prone to ill health. In 1974, the Type A construct was invented by 2 cardiologists, Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman to describe individuals “who have a competitive craving for achievement and recognition, a tendency towards hostility and aggression, and a sense of extreme time urgency and impatience” (Evans, 1990, 147). Such persons were often impatient and in a hurry, seeing goals and challenges everywhere and are concerned with more productivity in less time. Friedman, Hall, and Harris (1985) quote some expressive aspects of a Type A person, too: "walks briskly; alert face; very alive eyes; possibly a tense, teeth- clenching, jaw-grinding facial set; smile is a lateral extension, not an oval; laugh is rarely a belly laugh; looks at others unflinchingly in the eye; sits on edge of chair; hands gesture with fist or pointed finger; may squirm or move about with impatience; explosive, accelerating speech; clipped words, firm handshake; loud and/or vigorous voice; general expression of vigor." Directly opposite this type is the Type B personality describing calmer, more relaxed and less-stressed, mellow and laid back people. Type A also believe that self-esteem is to be measured by their accomplishments,Gauging from the strong motivation to achieve, they feel good about themselves when they do attain their goals and feel utterly disappointed when they do not perform at par to their expectations, or worse, fail in an endeavor. They usually have low self-esteem and feelings of inadequacy although they are highly motivated not to show it. They have a stronger need than Type B to prove themselves. “The psychological impact of a heart attack differs with Type A and type B personalities. Type A are more prone to reassess their lives and modify their values and behavior.” (Evans, 1990, p.150). It is assumed that Type A see that they have much more to lose in the event of death. In situations of challenge in which they are not in control, they become more frustrated and helpless more than Type B persons. (Glass, 1977) as they strive hard to regain control to no avail. This then results in their helplessness, as they become victims of the cycle of hyper-responsiveness and hypo-responsiveness. This high level of emotionality, stress and sense of urgency affects Type A’s physiological responses. It is this that researchers study their being prone to disease, specifically Coronary Heart Disease (CHD). Measurement of Type A Personality Type A persons were assessed using a Standard Interview or SI method wherein subjects were interviewed on their behaviors as well as observed in the interview proper. The interviewer analyzes how fast the subjects talk and their patience for lulls in questioning. (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974). Inter-rater classification agreement brings about reliability. SI has been considered the “gold standard” against other measurement methods. However, other self-report measures have been developed. The Jenkins Activity Survey or the JAS is the most widely used self-report instrument. (Jenkins, Rosenman & Zyzanski,1974).Another scale made by Framingham, the Framingham Type A Scale or FTAS has also been developed (Haynes, Levine, Scotch, Feinleib & Kannel, 1978). It agrees with the SI method. However, these self-report instruments have been met with a lot of problems of validity. Relation Between Personality Types and Health Another way of studying the relationship between personality type and health is evaluating the personalities of the patients themselves. Temoshok’s research (1992) found that cancer patients never seemed to express any negative emotions – no fear, no sadness, no anger, no denial. They were “very nice people.” This research resulted in the so-called Type “C” personality. Research has produced conflicting results to suggest that Type A personality is a risk factor for Coronary Heart Disease (CHD), and points out that it is the self-report instrument used that is crucial to the conclusion of the studies. JAS self-report scales have yielded results that conclude that Type B personalities are more prone to CHD than Type A personalities (Ragland & Brand, 1988). Because of such problematic results, Freidman & Booth-Kewley (1988) have called to abolish the JAS as a research instrument, as JAS method has very few items relating directly to anger/hostility. Friedman and Booth-Kewley (1987) wanted to investigate if indeed there was a “disease-prone personality”, so they conducted a study by selecting five widespread chronic diseases with undetermined etiologies namely: Asthma, Headaches, Ulcers, Arthritis and Heart disease. These diseases were matched with five selected personality variables such as anxiety, depression, anger/hostility/aggression, anger/hostility, and extraversion. What they found out was that different diseases were not necessarily linked with corresponding traits. However, it appeared that a certain type of personality played a big role across research domains, across diseases and across a wide variety of methods. It seems that the prevailing personality is observed during interviews with the person and the people close to him or in contrived experiments that test/ validate psychological tolerance for certain things. In the case of Type A personalities, they were observed to be fidgety when the interviewer pauses a little too long or manifest a “slow”, relaxed stance in interviewing them. Because of the encouraging findings that personality affects the health of a person, psychologists have developed psychotherapy that seems to reshape personality enough to prevent the onset of diseases and to prevent them from getting worse. (Eysenck & Grossareth-Maticek, 1991). In the Friedman et al study, psychological counseling worked in reducing Type A characteristics. Over a three-year period, those receiving counseling had a significant decrease in the rate of recurrence of nonfatal myocardial infarctions. The psychological intervention consisted of “extensive instruction in progressive muscle relaxation, modification of exaggerated emotional reactions, self- management, and establishment of new values and goals, all of which Friedman and Booth-Kewley (1987) note, would also have been effective in dealing with anxiety, hostility, and depression”(Ferzen, Midyat-Zilan, 2004). Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) Among today’s multitude of diseases – cancer, AIDS, and a host of other deadly ones, “Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) :is one of the greatest killers in the industrialized nations. It is caused by atherosclerosis (the most common and most important kind of arteriosclerosis) of the coronary arteries, the small but vital blood vessels that supply the heart muscle with blood and oxygen.” (Ferzen, Midyat-Zilan, 2004, para. 7). Linking Type A Personality with CHD With all the discussion on Type A personality and CHD, what ties them together? What is it in the Type A personality that seems to cause CHD in unsuspecting victims? “The critical link to heart disease involves hostility. It may be that a hostile interpersonal orientation coupled with competitive social situations produces a continuous angry arousal and tension which in turn increase the likelihood of heart disease.” (Ferzen, Midyat-Zilan, 2004, para. 19). Type A people may be more prone to heart disease because highly motivated to meet goals, they are known to maintain unhealthy habits such as smoking, sleeping less hours, drinking more caffeinated drinks, all of which are associated with coronary risk (Hicks, et al, 1982, 1983). Another reason is that their volatile temperament may contribute directly to heart disease. “In relaxed situations, the arousal of Type A’s and Type B’s is no different. But when harassed, given a challenge or threatened with a loss of control, Type A individuals are more physiologically reactive. Their hormonal secretions, pulse rate, and blood pressure soar, whereas those of Type B’s remain moderate.” (Lyness, 1993 as cited in Myers, 1995). Conclusion From the numerous research studies discussed in this paper, it may be concluded that indeed, personality variables have effects on one’s health or illness. With the fast pace of today’s lifestyles, people need to adapt their personalities to the various situations they come across. It is possible that one so calm and composed as a youth may turn into an aggressive, ambition-driven Type A as an adult working in a high stress work environment. Or the reverse may also be possible… one known to be a go-getter as a youth, demanding much of self and others in terms of work and achievement may turn mellow and carefree as an adult contently living in the country. Such major changes directly affect one’s health. Knowing all these, one is encouraged to reflect upon how he is living his life so far. Going back to Myers’ outline, it is worth examining: how one views life events- are they seen as challenges to be won or threats to one’s security? what kind of personality he has?- does he possess the critical Type A personality or a more positive Type B? his current health habits – does he maintain a healthy lifestyle of eating a balanced nutrition, exercising enough, having enough sleep or does he indulge in unhealthy habits such as smoking, sleeping late, drinking alcohol in excessive sums, etc.? his social support – does he nurture fulfilling family relationships? Stable friendships? Healthy work relations? Reassessing the above-mentioned factors will reveal much about one’s personal tendencies towards good health or illness. Life is what we make it. While we have the chance, let us strive to live a healthy and happy life by striving to maintain good health habits and positive personalities. Reference List (Chapter 6): Stress prone & stress-resistant personalities. Available at: http://www.sjsu.edu/upload/course/course_972/Personality.pdf (Accessed March 28, 2007) Evans, P.D. (1990) “Type A behaviour and coronary heart disease: when will the jury return?” British Journal of Psychology, 81, 147-157 Eysenck, H.J., & Grossarth-Maticek, R. (1991) “Creative novation behaviour therapy as a prophylactic treatment for cancer and coronary heart disease: Part II – Effects of treatment.” Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29, 17-31. Ferzen, A. & Midyat-Zilan, F.R. (2004) Dirty links: Stress, personality, and coronary heart disease. Available at: www.geocities.com/ferzenr/TypeA-heart.htm (Accessed March 28, 2007) Friedman, H.S., Hall, J.A., & Harris, M.J. (1985). “Type A behavior, nonverbal expressive style, and health.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 1299-1315. Friedman, H.S., & Booth-Kewley, S. (1987). “The ‘disease-prone personality’: A meta-analytic view of the construct.” American Psychologist, 42, 539-555. Friedman, H.S., & Booth-Kewley, S. (1988). “Validity of the Type A construct: A reprise”. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 381-384. Friedman, H.S. (2007). Personality, disease, and self-healing.  In H. S. Friedman & R.C. Silver (eds.), Foundations of Health Psychology.  NY:  Oxford University Press. Friedman, M., & Rosenman, R.H. (1974). Type A behavior and your heart. New York: Knopf. Glass, D.C. (1977) Behavior patterns, stress & coronary disease. Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum Haynes, S.G., Levine, S., Scotch, N., Feinleib, M. & Kannel, W.B. (1978) “The relationship of psychosocial factors to CHD in the Framingham Study: I. Methods & Risk Factors.” American Journal of Epidemiology, 107 (5) 362-383 Hicks, R.A. & Pellegrini, R.J. (1982). “Sleep problems and Type A-B behavior in college students.” Psychological Reports, 51, 196. Hicks, R.A, Kilcourse, J., & Sinnott, M.A. (1983). “Type A-B behavior and caffeine use in college students.” Psychological Reports, 52, 338. Jenkins, C.D., Rosenman, R. H. & Zyzanki, S.J. (1974) “Prediction of CHD by a test of coronary prone behavior.” New England Journal of Medicine, 290, 1271-1275 Light, K.C., Koepke, J.P, Obrist, P.A. & Willis, P.W., Jr. (1983). “Psychological stress induces sodium and fluid retention in men at high risk for hypertension”. Science, 220, 429-431. Lyness, S.A. (1993). “Predictors of differences between Type A and B individuals in heart rate and blood pressure reactivity.” Psychological Bulletin, 114, 266-295 Messina, J. (n.d.) Stress, Adjustment and Health Aspects of Personality. Available at: www.coping.org/write/HS814person/powerpoints/personality11.ppt (Accessed: March 28,2007) Myers, D.G. (1995) Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers Ragland, D.R. & Brand, R.J., (1988) “Type A behavior and mortality from coronary heart disease.” New England Journal of Medicine, 318, 65-69. Temoshok, L. (1992). The Type C connection: The behavioural links to cancer and your health. New York: Random House. The Disease Prone Personality, Chapter 5. (n.d.) Available at: http://www.faculty.concord.edu/chuddy/HED 303-Disease-prone personality.ppt ,(Accessed: March 28, 2007) White, P.D. (1982). Heart. Encyclopedia Americana, 14, 1-12. Grolier Incorporated APA Formatting and Style Guide This resource was written by David Neyhart and Erin Karper. Last full revision by Jodi Wagner. Last edited by Karl Stolley on August 8th 2006 at 4:29PM Summary: APA (American Psychological Association) is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences. This resource, revised according to the 5th edition of the APA manual, offers examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the reference page. Get Help for Using OWL Resources Get All Pages of This Resource for Quick Printing Get Permission to Photocopy and Distribute This Resource Tell the OWL Youre Linking to This Resource Report an Error in This Resource Share General Comments with the OWL Staff Jump to listing of all of this resources sections General Format General APA Guidelines Your essay should be typed, double-spaced on standard-sized paper (8.5 X 11 inches) with margins of 1 inch on all sides. Your final essay should include, in the order indicated below, as many of the following sections as are applicable, each of which should begin on a separate page: Title page: includes a running head for publication, title, and byline and affiliation. Image Caption: Sample APA title page; running head and page number in upper right-hand corner, definition of running head IN ALL CAPS, and vertically and horizontally centers the title of the paper, its author and her affiliation to the page. Page numbers and running head: in the upper right-hand corner of each page, include a 1-2 word version of your title. Follow with five spaces and then the page number. Abstract: If your instructor requires an abstract, write a 75-100 word overview of your essay, which should include your main idea and your major points. You also may want to mention any implications of your research. Place the abstract on its own page immediately after the title page. Center the word Abstract and then follow with the paragraph. Headings: Although not absolutely necessary, headings can be helpful. For undergraduate papers, only one level of heading is necessary. Major headings should be centered. Capitalize every word in the heading except articles (a, the), short prepositions (in, by, for), and coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or). Visuals: Visuals such as tables and figures include graphs, charts, drawings, and photographs. Try to keep the visuals as simple as possible and clearly label each visual with an Arabic numeral (ex: Table 1, Table 2, etc.) and include the title of the visual. The label and the title should appear on separate lines above the table, flush left. Below the table, provide the source. A sample Figure treatment is shown below. Image Caption: A sample figure and caption in APA style. List of References: Create your list of references on its own page after the last page of your text. Center the title References one inch from the top of the page. Double space. Alphabetize the list of references by the last name of the authors. If the work has no author or editor, alphabetize the work by the first word of the title (excluding A, An, or The). For more information about formatting an APA style paper, consult the publication manual, visit APA Style Essentials, or view a Sample APA Report or an APA Simulated Journal Article. Annotated bibliography writers might want to visit APA Format for Annotated Bibliographies. (Additional formatting resources, including Microsoft Word templates, are available in our Additional Resources section.) All Sections in APA Formatting and Style Guide: 1. General Format 2. In-Text Citations: The Basics 3. In-Text Citations: Author/Authors 4. Footnotes and Endnotes 5. Reference List: Basic Rules 6. Reference List: Author/Authors 7. Reference List: Articles in Periodicals 8. Reference List: Books 9. Reference List: Other Print Sources 10. Reference List: Electronic Sources 11. Reference List: Other Non-Print Sources 12. Additional Resources In-Text Citations: The Basics Reference citations in text are covered on pages 207-214 of the Publication Manual. What follows are some general guidelines for referring to the works of others in your essay. Note: APA style requires authors to use the past tense or present past tense when using signal phrases to describe earlier research. E.g., Jones (1998) found or Jones (1998) has found... APA Citation Basics When using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the authors last name and the year of publication for the source should appear in the text, E.g., (Jones, 1998), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper. If you are referring to an idea from another work but NOT directly quoting the material, or making reference to an entire book, article or other work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference. In-Text Citation Capitalization, Quotes, and Italics/Underlining Always capitalize proper nouns, including author names and initials: D. Jones. If you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitalize all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source: Permanence and Change. Exceptions apply to short words that are verbs, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs: Writing New Media, There Is Nothing Left to Lose. (Note that in your References list, only the first word of a title will be capitalized: Writing new media.) When capitalizing titles, capitalize both words in a hyphenated compound word: Natural-Born Cyborgs. Capitalize the first word after a dash or colon: "Defining Film Rhetoric: The Case of Hitchcocks Vertigo." Italicize or underline the titles of longer works such as books, edited collections, movies, television series, documentaries, or albums: The Closing of the American Mind; The Wizard of Oz; Friends. Put quotation marks around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles, articles from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles: "Multimedia Narration: Constructing Possible Worlds"; "The One Where Chandler Cant Cry." Short Quotations If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to include the author, year of publication, and the page number for the reference (preceded by "p."). Introduce the quotation with a signal phrase that includes the authors last name followed by the date of publication in parentheses. According to Jones (1998), "Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199). Jones (1998) found "students often had difficulty using APA style" (p. 199); what implications does this have for teachers? If the author is not named in a signal phrase, place the authors last name, the year of publication, and the page number in parentheses after the quotation. She stated, "Students often had difficulty using APA style," (Jones, 1998, p. 199), but she did not offer an explanation as to why. Long Quotations Place direct quotations longer than 40 words in a free-standing block of typewritten lines, and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation on a new line, indented five spaces from the left margin. Type the entire quotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any subsequent paragraph within the quotation five spaces from the new margin. Maintain double-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after closing punctuation mark. Joness (1998) study found the following: Students often had difficulty using APA style, especially when it was their first time citing sources. This difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or to ask their teacher for help. (p. 199) Summary or Paraphrase If you are paraphrasing an idea from another work, you only have to make reference to the author and year of publication in your in-text reference, but APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page number (although it is not required.) According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners. APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199). In-Text Citations: Author/Authors APA style has a series of important rules on using author names as part of the author-date system. There are additional rules for citing indirect sources, electronic sources, and sources without page numbers. Citing an Author or Authors A Work by Two Authors:Name both authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you cite the work. Use the word "and" between the authors names within the text and use "&" in the parentheses. Research by Wegener and Petty (1994) showed... (Wegener & Petty, 1994) A Work by Three to Five Authors: List all the authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses the first time you cite the source. (Kernis, Cornell, Sun, Berry, & Harlow, 1993) In subsequent citations, only use the first authors last name followed by "et al." in the signal phrase or in parentheses. (Kernis et al., 1993) In et al., et should not be followed by a period. Six or More Authors: Use the first authors name followed by et al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses. Harris et al. (2001) argued... (Harris et al., 2001) Unknown Author: If the work does not have an author, cite the source by its title in the signal phrase or use the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of books and reports are italicized or underlined; titles of articles and chapters are in quotation marks. A similar study was done of students learning to format research papers ("Using APA," 2001). Note: In the rare case the "Anonymous" is used for the author, treat it as the authors name (Anonymous, 2001). In the reference list, use the name Anonymous as the author. Organization as an Author: If the author is an organization or a government agency, mention the organization in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source. According to the American Psychological Association (2000),... If the organization has a well-known abbreviation, include the abbreviation in brackets the first time the source is cited and then use only the abbreviation in later citations. First citation: (Mothers Against Drunk Driving [MADD], 2000) Second citation: (MADD, 2000) Two or More Works in the Same Parentheses: When your parenthetical citation includes two or more works, order them the same way they appear in the reference list, separated by a semi-colon. (Berndt, 2002; Harlow, 1983) Authors With the Same Last Name: To prevent confusion, use first initials with the last names. (E. Johnson, 2001; L. Johnson, 1998) Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year: If you have two sources by the same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, b, c) with the year to order the entries in the reference list. Use the lower-case letters with the year in the in-text citation. Research by Berndt (1981a) illustrated that... Personal Communication: For interviews, letters, e-mails, and other person-to-person communication, cite the communicators name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the communication. Do not include personal communication in the reference list. (E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001). A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002). Citing Indirect Sources If you use a source that was cited in another source, name the original source in your signal phrase. List the secondary source in your reference list and include the secondary source in the parentheses. Johnson argued that...(as cited in Smith, 2003, p.102). Note:When citing material in parantheses, set off the citation with a comma, as above. Electronic Sources If possible, cite an electronic document the same as any other document by using the author-date style. Kenneth (2000) explained... Unknown Author and Unknown Date: If no author or date is given, use the title in your signal phrase or the first word or two of the title in the parentheses and use the abbreviation "n.d." (for "no date"). Another study of students and research decisions discovered that students succeeded with tutoring ("Tutoring and APA," n.d.). Sources Without Page Numbers When an electronic source lacks page numbers, you should try to include information that will help readers find the passage being cited. When an electronic document has numbered paragraphs, use the ¶ symbol, or the abbreviation "para." followed by the paragraph number (Hall, 2001, ¶ 5) or (Hall, 2001, para. 5). If the paragraphs are not numbered and the document includes headings, provide the appropriate heading and specify the paragraph under that heading. Note that in some electronic sources, like Web pages, people can use the Find function in their browser to locate any passages you cite. According to Smith (1997), ... (Mind over Matter section, para. 6). Note: Never use the page numbers of Web pages you print out; different computers print Web pages with different pagination. Footnotes and Endnotes Because long explanatory notes can be distracting to readers, APA style guidelines recommend the use of endnotes/footnotes. In the text, place a superscript numeral immediately after the text about which you would like to include more information, e.g.: Scientists examined the fossilized remains of the wooly-wooly yak.1 Number the notes consecutively in the order they appear in your paper. At the end of the paper, create a separate page labeled Notes (with the title centered at the top of the page). Below are examples of two kinds of notes. Evaluative bibliographic comments 1 See Blackmur (1995), especially chapters three and four, for an insightful analysis of this extraordinary animal. 2 On the problems related to yaks, see Wollens (1989, pp. 120-135); for a contrasting view, see Pyle (1992). Explanatory or additional information considered too digressive for the main text 3 In a recent interview, Weller (1998) reiterated this point even more strongly: "I am an artist, not a yak!" (p. 124). Reference List: Basic Rules Your reference list should appear at the end of your paper. It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text. Your references should begin on a new page separate from the text of the essay; label this page References (with no quotation marks, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of the page. It should be double-spaced just like the rest of your essay. Basic Rules Authors names are inverted (last name first); give the last name and initials for all authors of a particular work unless the work has more than six authors. If the work has more than six authors, list the first six authors and then use et al. after the sixth authors name to indicate the rest of the authors. Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work. If you have more than one article by the same author, single-author references or multiple-author references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in order by the year of publication, starting with the earliest. When referring to any work that is NOT a journal, such as a book, article, or Web page, capitalize only the first letter of the first word of a title and subtitle, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. Do not capitalize the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word. Capitalize all major words in journal titles. Italicize titles of longer works such as books and journals. Do not italicize, underline, or put quotes around the titles of shorter works such as journal articles or essays in edited collections. Reference List: Author/Authors The following rules for handling works by a single author or multiple authors apply to all APA-style references in your reference list, regardless of the type of work (book, article, electronic resource, etc.) Single Author Last name first, followed by author initials. Berndt, T. J. (2002). Friendship quality and social development. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 7-10. Two Authors List by their last names and initials. Use the "&" instead of "and." Wegener, D. T., & Petty, R. E. (1994). Mood management across affective states: The hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66, 1034-1048. Three to Six Authors List by last names and initials; commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again by "&" Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., Sun, C. R., Berry, A., & Harlow, T. (1993). Theres more to self-esteem than whether it is high or low: The importance of stability of self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1190-1204. More Than Six Authors If there are more than six authors, list the first six as above and then "et al.," which stands for "and others." Remember not to place a period after "et" in "et al." Harris, M., Karper, E., Stacks, G., Hoffman, D., DeNiro, R., Cruz, P., et al. (2001). Writing labs and the Hollywood connection. Journal of Film and Writing, 44(3), 213-245. Organization as Author American Psychological Association. (2003). Unknown Author Merriam-Websters collegiate dictionary (10th ed.).(1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. NOTE: When your essay includes parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the sources title instead of an authors name. Use quotation marks and italics as appropriate. For example, parenthetical citations of the two sources above would appear as follows: (Merriam-Websters, 1993) and ("New Drug," 1993). Two or More Works by the Same Author Use the authors name for all entries and list the entries by the year (earliest comes first). Berndt, T.J. (1981). Berndt, T.J. (1999). When an author appears both as a sole author and, in another citation, as the first author of a group, list the one-author entries first. Berndt, T. J. (1999). Friends influence on students adjustment to school. Educational Psychologist, 34, 15-28. Berndt, T. J., & Keefe, K. (1995). Friends influence on adolescents adjustment to school. Child Development, 66, 1312-1329. References that have the same first author and different second and/or third authors are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, or the last name of the third if the first and second authors are the same. Wegener, D. T., Kerr, N. L., Fleming, M. A., & Petty, R. E. (2000). Flexible corrections of juror judgments: Implications for jury instructions. Psychology, Public Policy, & Law, 6, 629-654. Wegener, D. T., Petty, R. E., & Klein, D. J. (1994). Effects of mood on high elaboration attitude change: The mediating role of likelihood judgments. European Journal of Social Psychology, 24, 25-43. Two or More Works by the Same Author in the Same Year If you are using more than one reference by the same author (or the same group of authors listed in the same order) published in the same year, organize them in the reference list alphabetically by the title of the article or chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year. Refer to these sources in your essay as they appear in your reference list, e.g.: "Berdnt (1981a) makes similar claims..." Berndt, T. J. (1981a). Age changes and changes over time in prosocial intentions and behavior between friends. Developmental Psychology, 17, 408-416. Berndt, T. J. (1981b). Effects of friendship on prosocial intentions and behavior. Child Development, 52, 636-643. Reference List: Articles in Periodicals Basic Form APA style dicates that authors are named last name followed by initials; publication year goes between parentheses, followed by a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitalized. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed by the volume number which, with the title, is also italicized or underlined. Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number(issue number), pages. Article in Journal Paginated by Volume Journals that are paginated by volume begin with page one in issue one, and continue numbering issue two where issue one ended, etc. Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896. Article in Journal Paginated by Issue Journals paginated by issue begin with page one every issue; therefore, the issue number gets indicated in parentheses after the volume. The parentheses and issue number are not italicized or underlined. Scruton, R. (1996). The eclipse of listening. The New Criterion, 15(30), 5-13. Article in a Magazine Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in todays schools. Time, 135, 28-31. Article in a Newspaper Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style. Single pages take p., e.g., p. B2; multiple pages take pp., e.g., pp. B2, B4 or pp. C1, C3-C4. Schultz, S. (2005, December 28). Calls made to strengthen state energy policies. The Country Today, pp. 1A, 2A. Letter to the Editor Moller, G. (2002, August). Ripples versus rumbles [Letter to the editor]. Scientific American, 287(2), 12. Review Baumeister, R. F. (1993). Exposing the self-knowledge myth [Review of the book The self-knower: A hero under control]. Contemporary Psychology, 38, 466-467. Reference List: Books Basic Format for Books Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work: Capital letter also for subtitle. Location: Publisher. NOTE: For "Location," you should always list the city, but you should also include the state if the city is unfamiliar or if the city could be confused with one in another state. Calfee, R. C., & Valencia, R. R. (1991). APA guide to preparing manuscripts for journal publication. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Edited Book, No Author Duncan, G.J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.). (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Edited Book with an Author or Authors Plath, S. (2000). The unabridged journals (K.V. Kukil, Ed.). New York: Anchor. A Translation Laplace, P. S. (1951). A philosophical essay on probabilities (F. W. Truscott & F. L. Emory, Trans.). New York: Dover. (Original work published 1814) NOTE: When you cite a republished work, like the one above, work in your text, it should appear with both dates: Laplace (1814/1951). Edition Other Than the First Helfer, M.E. Keme, R.S. & Drugman, R.D. (1997). The battered child (5th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Article or Chapter in an Edited Book Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year of publication). Title of chapter. In A. Editor & B. Editor (Eds.), Title of book (pages of chapter). Location: Publisher. NOTE: When you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the book title, use "pp." before the numbers: (pp. 1-21). This abbreviation, however, does not appear before the page numbers in periodical references, except for newspapers. ONeil, J. M., & Egan, J. (1992). Mens and womens gender role journeys: Metaphor for healing, transition, and transformation. In B. R. Wainrib (Ed.), Gender issues across the life cycle (pp. 107-123). New York: Springer. Multivolume Work Wiener, P. (Ed.). (1973). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Vols. 1-4). New York: Scribners. Reference List: Other Print Sources An Entry in An Encyclopedia Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. Work Discussed in a Secondary Source List the source the work was discussed in: Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed-processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589-608. NOTE: Give the secondary source in the references list; in the text, name the original work, and give a citation for the secondary source. For example, if Seidenberg and McClellands work is cited in Coltheart et al. and you did not read the original work, list the Coltheart et al. reference in the References. In the text, use the following citation: In Seidenberg and McClellands study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller, 1993), ... Dissertation Abstract Yoshida, Y. (2001). Essays in urban transportation (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, 2001). Dissertation Abstracts International, 62, 7741A. Government Document National Institute of Mental Health. (1990). Clinical training in serious mental illness (DHHS Publication No. ADM 90-1679). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Report From a Private Organization American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with eating disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Author. Conference Proceedings Schnase, J.L., & Cunnius, E.L. (Eds.). (1995). Proceedings from CSCL 95: The First International Conference on Computer Support for Collaborative Learning. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Reference List: Electronic Sources Article From an Online Periodical Online articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. Include all information the online host makes available, including an issue number in parantheses. Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of online periodical, volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved May 2, 2006 from http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving Online Scholarly Journal Article Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of journal, volume number. Retrieved month day, year, from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/ Kenneth, I. A. (2000). A Buddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 8.Retrieved February 20, 2001, from http://www.cac.psu.edu/jbe/twocont.html If the article appears as a printed version as well, the URL is not required. Use "Electronic version" in brackets after the articles title. Whitmeyer, J.M. (2000). Power through appointment [Electronic version]. Social Science Research, 29, 535-555. Article From a Database When referencing material obtained from an online database (such as a database in the library), provide appropriate print citation information (formatted just like a "normal" print citation would be for that type of work). Then add information that gives the date of retrieval and the proper name of the database. This will allow people to retrieve the print version if they do not have access to the database from which you retrieved the article. You can also include the item number or accession number in parentheses at the end, but the APA manual says that this is not required. (For more about citing articles retrieved from electronic databases, see page 278 of the Publication Manual.) Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment of peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating, 8(3). Retrieved February 20, 2003, from PsycARTICLES database. Nonperiodical Web Document, Web Page, or Report List as much of the following information as possible (you sometimes have to hunt around to find the information; dont be lazy. If there is a page like http://www.somesite.com/somepage.htm, and somepage.htm doesnt have the information youre looking for, move up the URL to http://www.somesite.com/): Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of document. Retrieved month date, year, from http://Web address. NOTE: When an Internet document is more than one Web page, provide a URL that links to the home page or entry page for the document. Also, if there isnt a date available for the document use (n.d.) for no date. Chapter or Section of a Web document Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article. In Title of book or larger document (chapter or section number). Retrieved month day, year from http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/. Engelshcall, R. S. (1997). Module mod_rewrite: URL Rewriting Engine. In Apache HTTP Server Version 1.3 Documentation (Apache modules.) Retrieved March 10, 2006 from http://httpd.apache.org/docs/1.3/mod/mod_rewrite.html NOTE: Use a chapter or section identifier and provide a URL that links directly to the chapter section, not the home page of the Web site. E-mail E-mails are not included in the list of references, though you parenthetically cite them in your main text: (E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001). Online Forum or Discussion Board Posting Message posted to an online newsgroup, forum, or discussion group. Include the title of the messsage, and the URL of the newsgroup or discussion board. Frook, B. D. (1999, July 23). New inventions in the cyberworld of toylandia [Msg 25]. Message posted to http://groups.earthlink.com/forum/messages/00025.html NOTE: If only the screen name is available for the author, then use the screen name; however, if the author provides a real name, use their real name instead. Be sure to provide the exact date of the posting. Follow the date with the subject line, the thread of the message (not in italics). Provide any identifiers in brackets after the title, as in other types of references. Computer Software Ludwig, T. (2002). PsychInquiry [computer software]. New York: Worth. For more help with citing electronic sources, see the APA style web sites coverage of electronic references or Frequently Asked Questions about APA Style from the APA web site, or visit our additional resources section. Reference List: Other Non-Print Sources Interviews, Email, and Other Personal Communication No personal communication is included in your reference list; instead, parenthetically cite the communicators name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the communication in your main text only. (E. Robbins, personal communication, January 4, 2001). A. P. Smith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties with APA style (personal communication, November 3, 2002). Motion Picture Basic reference list format: Producer, P. P. (Producer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of motion picture [Motion picture]. Country of origin: Studio or distributor. Note: If a movie or video tape is not available in wide distribution, add the following to your citation after the country of origin: (Available from Distributor name, full address and zip code). A Motion Picture or Video Tape with International or National Availability Smith, J.D. (Producer), & Smithee, A.F. (Director). (2001). Really Big Disaster Movie [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures. A Motion Picture or Video Tape with Limited Availability Harris, M. (Producer), & Turley, M. J. (Director). (2002). Writing Labs: A History [Motion picture]. (Available from Purdue University Pictures, 500 Oval Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907) Television Broadcast or Series Episode Producer, P. P. (Producer). (Date of broadcast or copyright). Title of broadcast Television broadcast or Television series. p distributor.< or Studio origin: of City> Single Episode of a Television Series Writer, W. W. (Writer), & Director, D.D. (Director). (Date of publication). Title of episode [Television series episode]. In P. Producer (Producer), Series Title. City of origin: Studio or distributor. Wendy, S. W. (Writer), & Martian, I.R. (Director). (1986). The rising angel and the falling ape. [Television series episode]. In D. Dude (Producer), Creatures and Monsters. Los Angeles: Belarus Studios. Television Broadcast Important, I.M. (Producer). (1990, November 1). The Nightly News Hour. [Television broadcast]. New York: Central Broadcasting Service. A Television Series Bellisario, D.L. (Producer). (1992). Exciting Action Show. [Television series]. Hollywood: American Broadcasting Company. Music Recording Songwriter, W. W. (Date of copyright). Title of song [Recorded by artist if different from song writer]. On Title of album [Medium of recording]. Location: Label. (Recording date if different from copyright date). Taupin, B. (1975). Someone saved my life tonight [Recorded by Elton John]. On Captain fantastic and the brown dirt cowboy [CD]. London: Big Pig Music Limited. For more about citing audiovisual media, see pages 266-269 of the Publication Manual. For information about citing legal sources in your reference list, see the Westfield State College page on Citing Legal Materials in APA Style. Additional Resources Its always best to consult the Publication Manual first for any APA question. If you are using APA style for a class assignment, its a good idea to consult your professor, advisor, TA, or other campus resources for help with using APA style—theyre the ones who can tell you how the style should apply in your particular case. For extraordinary questions that arent covered clearly in the style manual or havent been answered by your teacher or advisor, contact the Writing Lab for help at (765) 494-3723 or email by using our OWL tutor email form. Print Resources Here are some print resources for using APA style. Click The Purdue OWL does not make any profit from nor does it endorse these agencies; links are merely offered for information. Most of these books are probably available in your local library. From the American Psychological Association: Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th edition) (ISBN: 1557987912) Mastering APA Style: Students Workbook and Training Guide (ISBN: 1557988919) Mastering APA Style: Instructors Resource Guide (ISBN: 1557988900) Displaying Your Findings: A Practical Guide for Creating Figures, Posters, and Presentations (ISBN: 1557989788) From other publishers: The Worlds Easiest Guide to Using the APA (ISBN: 0964385317) Writing With Style: APA Style Made Easy (ISBN: 0534363652) Writing With Style: APA Style for Social Work (ISBN: 0534263119) Online Resources from the APA APA Style Website About APA Style Electronic References in APA Style Electronic Media and URLs General Forms for Electronic References Reference Examples for Electronic Materials Citations in Text of Electronic Material APA Style Tips Tip of the Week Frequently Asked Questions about APA Style APA Style Helper (software program; requires purchase) APA Style Guide for Electronic Resources (PDF download; requires purchase) Other Online Resources: Formatting and Writing in APA Style APA Documentation (from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center) APA Style Formatting Guide (from Indiana State University) APA-Style Checklist (from Bill Southerly) APA 5th Edition Guidelines (Adobe PDF from the University of Central Arkansas) Other Online Resources: Style Templates and Sample Papers Sample paper: APA style (Diana Hacker) Sample APA Report (from The Write Source) APA Simulated Journal Article (from Elmira College) A Sample Paper in American Psychological Association Style (From Valencia Community College) Sample reference list (from Vanier College) Other Online Resources: Documenting and Referencing Sources Using APA Style to Cite and Document Sources (from Bedford St. Martins Online!) APA Style Electronic Formats (from Dr. Mary Ellen Guffey) APA Style crib sheet (from the University of Minnesota at Crookston) How to Cite Online Nursing Resources Using APA Style (from the University of Nevada at Reno) APA Citation Style: Examples for Nursing Students (from College of St. Benedict/St. Johns University) Citing Legal Materials in APA Style (Westfield State College) Read More