Growth and Development in Old Age - Essay Example

Running head: Old age is a time of continued growth and development, as important as any other period of life Name: Institution: Course: Instructor: Date: Abstract This paper supports the argument that old age is a stage of continuous development and growth. The rationale for this study is based on concepts of social development, participation in leadership, and developmental analyses of changes in growth and behavior from infancy to old age. Theoretical and evolutionary perspectives will be explored to explain human behavioral change, emotional intelligence, and leadership capabilities at advanced age. Aspects of negative attitude towards old people will be examined on the basis of workforce prejudices. This study recommends policies to be implemented that would cater for social participation and independence of older persons. Introduction Growth, development and change needs to be recognized as a fundamental stage in ones life. Growth is a process that takes various transitions, right from conception up to the time an Individual dies. It has been a common trend to stigmatize and neglect ageing people. This paper will challenge policy makers in social welfare to adhere to the special needs of ageing populations as it was provided for in the United Nations Program on Ageing. According to the Madrid International Plan there should be a plan that would allow people to age with dignity and security (Barlett etal, 2006). It is also important to note that Old people may encounter a variety of issues, which are influenced by various factors. For example, emotional development and behavioral change in Old age, is one factor that poses a major challenge to professionals in social work practice. Studies reveal that, Individuals have a great sense of belonging and attachment to the family and society. This can be manifested in infancy, through response to brief family separations. Similarly, old people respond to disruption of attachment. This can be noticed especially through loss or bereavement. This affects their emotions and behavior. Understanding these changes in old people by social workers, in perspective avoids negative outcomes and result to positive changes (Durkin, 1995). Cognitive and Moral development. According to Erikson, Society, parents and other external factors play role in development of an individual’s personality. Erikson puts forward eight stage models of development from childhood to adulthood which forms an interrelated cycle of events that defines behavior change and development. Infancy is the stage of development from birth up to one and a half years old. An infant is physically and emotionally attached to the parents. The parents’ ability to nurture and provide visual and physical contact makes the infant to develop confidence, optimism security and trust. Consequently, lack of basic care by parents to the infant will have negative impact on the infant’s security, poor perception to the world, and loss of appreciation (Erikson, 1968). Early childhood is a stage between two to three years, at this stage; the child is able to acquire basic life skills and is able to distinguish wrong and right actions. The child who is cared for well develops self-esteem and autonomy. However, bad characteristics also appear in the child through defiance, temperament and stubbornness. Moral background of an individual is traced to this stage. According to Kohlberg’s theory, this is the preconventional level where punishment for wrong actions leads to obedience. The theory is based on moral reasoning and argues that cognitive development is parallel to moral change. While the latter does not dictate to the first, there is capability of thinking and reasoning that increases at complex levels for moral reasoning (Kohlberg, 1976). Preschool stage is between ages three to five years. At this stage a child develops desire to imitate what adults are doing and also engage in industrious art of making and playing with toys. A tussle between adult and child is prevalent at this stage; this is because the child is so inquisitive and ready to explore what adults do through experiments. This difference can be resolved through amicable assignment of social roles in the family (Erikson, 1968). Next stage is the Latency stage. This is the period of development at the age of six to twelve years. The child becomes more knowledgeable and competent in accomplishing and mastering various new skills and also in learning. The parents play a lesser role in development of the child. Peer influence and the struggle to avoid inferiority make the child to be inclined to the outside world. Adolescent stage is between twelve to eighteen years. At this stage there is tendency to form strong binding and resolve to friends, and ideas (Erikson, 1968). The young adult stage is between the ages of eighteen to thirty five. Sexual orientation and interrelations of love to the opposite sex occur. Relationships built at this stage are with friends and marital partners. However, intimacy and sexual relationships in recent years has been pushed back (Erikson, 1968). The Middle age is the stage between age of thirty five to fifty five or sixty five. Also known as Middle adulthood, this is the stage that family and career forms core engagement. People at this stage have fear on their ability to be resourceful to society as well as greater financial responsibilities. Most of their social life is within family, community and workplace (Erikson, 1968). At late stage of between 55 or 65 to death, one examines and reflects on achievements, integrity and sense of fulfillment to family and society, or despair caused by failures. There is constant fear for death and feeling of whether life was worthy living (Erikson, 1968). Emotional reactions and Identity Emotional reactions and self esteem is an aspect that distinguishes the young and old characteristics. It is evident that Old adults have the ability to control their emotions. Likewise, Old adults respond situations which bear negative information in a selective manner. This can be attributed to their diminished reactivity of old age, to information that has negative feelings. In addition, adults display salience and heterogeneous reaction to emotional information (Gross, 2005). Comparison of Piaget, Vygosky, and Kohlberg’ theories give alternative views on the aspect of young moral development and adherence to social prescriptions. Although, children are supposed to accept and cooperate with commands given by the older people up to a certain level (Piaget, 1964). It is acceptable also that morality is a self constraint that increases as children approach maturity. This enables them to learn how to reconcile to competitive needs and goals (Durkin, 1995 pp. 368-374). While the young and healthy adults have expansive time and wide goals to acquire important information about their environs. The older generation has a view of limited time in their lifespan. This motivates the aged to be selective on how to monitor the world in order to optimize their emotions. Subsequently, Old adults are able to constantly regulate their emotional abilities (Kliegel, etal, 2007). Furthermore, Old adults have less ego identity in contrast to the young who strive to gain self satisfaction (Erikson, 1968). It can be said that the young people have less personal identity and tend to have orientation towards diverse culture. In contrast, the old age because of the heavy roles they play in community are inclined to a collective social and cultural identity (Gross, 2005). Diversity and the ageing process Workplace discrepancies occur among workers of different age. Management of organizations with an ageing workforce needs to implement leadership styles that will enhance continuity. Age among workers is a key factor that may determine trends on varying needs and experience during the working life. Appreciation and recognition of age orientation is important for increasing productivity in an organization. Factors affecting different age groups in a working environment are variable because of their changing needs and views (Carlson, etal, 2007). This diversity in age need to be managed well. This is essential to avoid discrimination or actions that may have negative impact on the productivity of workers. Public and private sectors are faced with the challenge of motivating and retaining ageing workforce. In general, the public sector has increased civil servants on average; this requires new policies to make them have a long working life (EGPA, 2007). This paper argues that old workforce is more diverse in management and leadership styles. For example, a survey carried out on demographic profile of Flemish government, show that civil servants retire at the age of sixty. However, majority of the workers leave the workforce between the ages of forty five and fifty five. This depletes the government of experienced workforce that lead to huge out flow of experience and knowledge (EGPA, 2007). Consequently, managing multigenerational workers should be viewed as a means of maintaining continuity in workforce. The challenge here is to ensure that each age group needs is addressed to avoid negative attitude towards ageing workers. It important to have effective leadership to maintain cohesiveness, motivation and individual development in order to achieve higher satisfaction levels (EGPA, 2007). Ageing and their influence on policy and practice In most West European countries workers are encouraged to leave the workforce early. This is done through provision of attractive financial incentive packages based on European welfare policy. Although the policy is appreciated for increasing employment of young people, it is partly to blame for enhancing prejudices against old employees and old worker stigma (EGPA, 2007). Environmental factors may determine the description between old and young worker. A worker in Europe at the age of forty five is considered to be old. While USA a worker is considered to be old at the age of sixty or older. Intellectual and cognitive development that determines an individuals work performance increases as a work gets old. According to Paul B. Baltes (1997), his survey indicated that growth and development extends throughout the entire lifespan (EGPA, 2007). Evolutionary psychologists, give perspective of human development and behavior based on cooperation, parenting, mating, kinship violence and aggression. According to orthogenetic principle, development takes place in a process that starts from a position of no differentiation to that of increasing differentiation. This implies that the later and older generations gain characteristics that enable them to coexist peacefully (Werner & Kaplan, 1956). Conclusion This paper emphasizes on the importance of appreciating the ageing people. It has been noted in the discussion that an ageing workforce is a challenge to management and leadership of any institution that is geared to maintain continuity. It is also worthy to initiate social welfare policies that consider ageing as a growth and development and avoid social prejudices and stigmatization. Independence and social satisfaction among the old opens avenues to exchange ideas and share knowledge and experience. This will ensure transfer of essential skills along the generations and uphold to cultural and social values. It is advisable for organizations in public sector to create policies and practices that will respond swiftly to the dynamism of the changes (EGPA, 2007). In this view, it is satisfactory to treaty young and old age as transitions stages in ones lifespan. References Barlett, H., Boldy, D., Underwood, M. (2006). Policy and Practice on Ageing. Available at Accessed on 3rd 04-2009 Carlson N. Martin. G., Buskist W. (2007). Psychology London: Pearson (pp. 516-520) Durkin, K (1995). Developmental social Psychology. (pp. 116-123, 130-135, 144-145) Durkin, K (1995). Developmental social Psychology. (pp. 368-374) EGPA (2007). Leadership diversity in an ageing workforce. Available at Read More

Consequently, lack of basic care by parents to the infant will have negative impact on the infant’s security, poor perception to the world, and loss of appreciation (Erikson, 1968). Early childhood is a stage between two to three years, at this stage; the child is able to acquire basic life skills and is able to distinguish wrong and right actions. The child who is cared for well develops self-esteem and autonomy. However, bad characteristics also appear in the child through defiance, temperament and stubbornness.

Moral background of an individual is traced to this stage. According to Kohlberg’s theory, this is the preconventional level where punishment for wrong actions leads to obedience. The theory is based on moral reasoning and argues that cognitive development is parallel to moral change. While the latter does not dictate to the first, there is capability of thinking and reasoning that increases at complex levels for moral reasoning (Kohlberg, 1976). Preschool stage is between ages three to five years.

At this stage a child develops desire to imitate what adults are doing and also engage in industrious art of making and playing with toys. A tussle between adult and child is prevalent at this stage; this is because the child is so inquisitive and ready to explore what adults do through experiments. This difference can be resolved through amicable assignment of social roles in the family (Erikson, 1968). Next stage is the Latency stage. This is the period of development at the age of six to twelve years.

The child becomes more knowledgeable and competent in accomplishing and mastering various new skills and also in learning. The parents play a lesser role in development of the child. Peer influence and the struggle to avoid inferiority make the child to be inclined to the outside world. Adolescent stage is between twelve to eighteen years. At this stage there is tendency to form strong binding and resolve to friends, and ideas (Erikson, 1968). The young adult stage is between the ages of eighteen to thirty five.

Sexual orientation and interrelations of love to the opposite sex occur. Relationships built at this stage are with friends and marital partners. However, intimacy and sexual relationships in recent years has been pushed back (Erikson, 1968). The Middle age is the stage between age of thirty five to fifty five or sixty five. Also known as Middle adulthood, this is the stage that family and career forms core engagement. People at this stage have fear on their ability to be resourceful to society as well as greater financial responsibilities.

Most of their social life is within family, community and workplace (Erikson, 1968). At late stage of between 55 or 65 to death, one examines and reflects on achievements, integrity and sense of fulfillment to family and society, or despair caused by failures. There is constant fear for death and feeling of whether life was worthy living (Erikson, 1968). Emotional reactions and Identity Emotional reactions and self esteem is an aspect that distinguishes the young and old characteristics. It is evident that Old adults have the ability to control their emotions.

Likewise, Old adults respond situations which bear negative information in a selective manner. This can be attributed to their diminished reactivity of old age, to information that has negative feelings. In addition, adults display salience and heterogeneous reaction to emotional information (Gross, 2005). Comparison of Piaget, Vygosky, and Kohlberg’ theories give alternative views on the aspect of young moral development and adherence to social prescriptions. Although, children are supposed to accept and cooperate with commands given by the older people up to a certain level (Piaget, 1964).

It is acceptable also that morality is a self constraint that increases as children approach maturity. This enables them to learn how to reconcile to competitive needs and goals (Durkin, 1995 pp. 368-374). While the young and healthy adults have expansive time and wide goals to acquire important information about their environs.

Read More