Families and Substance Abuse - Annotated Bibliography Example

 Annotated Bibliography – Families And Substance Abuse Buka, S. L., Shenassa, E. D., & Niaura, R. (2014). Elevated risk of tobacco dependence among offspring of mothers who smoked during pregnancy: a 30-year prospective study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 11, 1978-84. This study was conducted by Buka et al. and the purpose of this study was to identify the impact on children due to their mother’s smoking habit at the time of their pregnancy (Buka et al., 2014). The study employed more than 1200 participants who were interviewed and were at least 29 years of age. The outcome of the study was the individual’s whose mothers at the time of their pregnancy indulged in smoking a minimum of more than one packet of cigarettes were more likely to experience the mental illness of lifetime tobacco dependence as compared to mothers who were not indulged in smoking habit during pregnancy. This article will be used as evidence to support the statement that if mothers at the time of pregnancy are involved in substance abuse, their children are more likely to abuse the same substance as they grow older. Behnke, M., Smith, V. C., Committee on Substance Abuse, & Committee on Fetus and Newborn. (January 01, 2013). Prenatal substance abuse: short- and long-term effects on the exposed fetus. Pediatrics, 131, 3, 1009-24. This article was authored by Behnke et al. and in this article the author provides information regarding the prevalence of substance abuse by mother’s at the time of pregnancy (Behnke et al., 2013). The author states that that at least 4.4% of pregnant women who are between 15 years old and 44 years old abuse substance at the time of pregnancy. Furthermore the author has even provided insight regarding how to measure that a parent was abusing a substance at the time of pregnancy. The author has even outlined the mechanism of action of these substances in the case of fetus. Lastly, the author has focused on the various medical issues that newly born children experience due to being impacted by the drugs that were abused by their mothers. This information in this article can be used in different sections of the workshops such as section of prevalence of fetus and new born being effected. LaGasse, L. L., Derauf, C., Smith, L. M., Newman, E., Shah, R., Neal, C., Arria, A., ... Lester, B. M. (January 01, 2012). Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and childhood behavior problems at 3 and 5 years of age. Pediatrics, 129, 4, 681-8. This research was conducted by LaGasse et al. with the aim of identifying behavioral issues developed by those children who were exposed to their mother’s consumption of methamphetamine (LaGasse et al., 2012). The mother’s consumed this drug while she was pregnant. The researchers identified that children whose mothers abused methamphetamine at the time of pregnancy were more likely to experience anxiety, depression and elevated levels of emotional reactivity as well as ADHD. This study will be used within the workshop to elaborate on the impact on children due to their mother’s habit of abusing methamphetamine. Carter, R. C., Jacobson, J. L., Sokol, R. J., Avison, M. J., & Jacobson, S. W. (January 01, 2013). Fetal alcohol-related growth restriction from birth through young adulthood and moderating effects of maternal prepregnancy weight. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 37, 3, 452-62. This study was conducted by Carter et al. and the purpose of this study was to identify the impact on an individual’s height and body weight if the individual’s mother was indulged in alcohol abuse when the mother was pregnant with the individual (Carter et al., 2013). The specific purpose of the study was to identify the short term as well as the long-term impact on a child’s body weight and height caused due to his/her mother’s substance abuse activity while she was pregnant. The researchers were able to identify those children of those mothers who had developed a habit of abusing alcohol at the time of pregnancy experienced higher level of reduction in weight, height and body mass index. This study will help in providing evidence to back the statement that children born to parents with substance abuse tendency are more likely to experience physical issues. Janisse, J. J., Bailey, B. A., Ager, J., & Sokol, R. J. (March 03, 2014). Alcohol, Tobacco, Cocaine, and Marijuana Use: Relative Contributions to Preterm Delivery and Fetal Growth Restriction. Substance Abuse, 35, 1, 60-67. This study was conducted by Janisse et al. and the purpose of this study was to identify the effect of abusing various substances such as alcohol and tobacco on the gestational duration as well as growth of fetal (Janisse et al., 2014). The researchers were able to identify those substances such as alcohol; cigarettes as well as marijuana had a negative impact on the gestational duration. Furthermore the researchers were able to identify that cigarette, marijuana and alcohol abuse had the most significant impact on the birth weight of the child and it’s led to decrease in 26% percent decline in the weight of the child. The findings of this study will be used in the workshop to focus on specific substances that have a higher impact on the fetus and substances that have a lower impact. D’Onofrio, B., Rickert, M., Langström, N., Donahue, K., Coyne, C., & Larsson, H. et al. (2012). Familial Confounding of the Association Between Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy and Offspring Substance Use and Problems. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 69(11), 1140. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2107 This research was conducted by D’Onofrio et al. and the purpose of this research was to identify the link between smoking during the time of pregnancy as well as the issue of substance abuse experienced by the offspring of those mothers who used to smoke during pregnancy (D’Onofrio et al., 2012). The researchers were able to identify that there is no causal relationship between substance abuse practice by offspring and substance abuse by mothers at the time of pregnancy. The researcher states that background of a particular family is a major risk factor that can cause substance abuse problems in offspring. This research can be used in the workshop as evidence to prove that cigarette smoking at the time of pregnancy does not result in similar behavior being carried out by offspring. Richardson, G. A., Larkby, C., Goldschmidt, L., & Day, N. L. (January 01, 2013). Adolescent Initiation of Drug Use: Effects of Prenatal Cocaine Exposure. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 1, 37-46. This study was performed by Richardson et al. and the researchers aimed at identifying the direct impact of cocaine abuse at the time of pregnancy on drug abuse behavior by offspring during adolescence (Richardson et al., 2013). The researchers were able to identify that children of mothers who abuse cocaine are more likely to abuse drugs such as marijuana and alcohol during the stage of adolescence and this can impact the social and psychological health of children in a negative manner. This study will be used as supporting evidence to prove the point that children who are exposed to drugs when they are recognized as fetal are more likely to abuse drugs once they reach the age of adolescence. Lambert, B., Bann, C., Bauer, C., Shankaran, S., Bada, H., & Lester, B. et al. (2013). Risk-Taking Behavior Among Adolescents with Prenatal Drug Exposure and Extrauterine Environmental Adversity. Journal Of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 34(9), 669-679. doi:10.1097/01.dbp.0000437726.16588.e2 This study was conducted by Lambert et al. and the purpose of this study was to identify the impact of mother’s substance abuse behavior at the time of pregnancy on their child’s risk-taking behaviors during adolescence (Lambert et al., 2013). The researchers identified that if children are exposed to drugs while they are in utero, they are more likely to indulge in early sexual activities and are more likely to be arrested during adolescence. The findings of the study will be used as evidence to depict that children of parents who abuse substance at the time of pregnancy are more likely to indulge in higher risk taking behaviors. O'Leary, Colleen, & Bower, C. (2012). Fetal alcohol syndrome. Curtin University of Technology, Curtin University. This article has been authored by O'Leary and the purpose of this article was to provide information that is relevant to the disorder of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). The author states that it is quite difficult to diagnose whether a fetus is suffering from FAS or not. The author states that a child suffering from this order tends to be experiencing facial deformities. The author states that there are various names associated with the disorder and the author even provides information regarding the prevalence of this disorder. The findings of this article will help in the introductory section as well as the background and prevalence section of the workshop. Popova, S., Lange, S., Burd, L., Rehm, J., & Hausmann-Muela, S. C. (August 10, 2012). Health Care Burden and Cost Associated with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Based on Official Canadian Data. Plos One, 7, 8.) This research was conducted by Popova et al. and in this research the author tried to identify the mortality rate of those who are experiencing Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (Popova et al., 2012). The researchers even tried to identify the medical expenditure that is associated with this disorder. The research was conducted on the population of Canada and the researchers were able to identify that during the period of 2008 and 2009 a total of $6.7 million was the expense for various direct medical expenses associated with this disorder. The findings of this study will be used to provide an insight regarding the how problematic this condition is becoming. Ballard, M. S., Sun, M., & Ko, J. (January 01, 2012). Vitamin A, folate, and choline as a possible preventive intervention to fetal alcohol syndrome. Medical Hypotheses, 78, 4, 489-93. This research was conducted by Ballard et al. during the period of 2012 and the purpose of this research was to identify methods for preventing the development of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS). The researchers state that it is not only alcohol consumption of the mother that can cause this disorder. The disorder can even be caused due to poor living condition and nutrition of the mother along with her alcohol abusing tendency. Due to this the researchers claim that administration of Vitamin A, folate as well as choline can be used as methods to prevent the development of this syndrome. This research will be used to provide information regarding causes, risk factors that cause FAS and methods of prevention. Fox, D. J., Pettygrove, S., Cunniff, C., O'Leary, L. A., Gilboa, S. M., Bertrand, J., Druschel, C. M., ... Meaney, F. J. (January 01, 2015). Fetal alcohol syndrome among children aged 7-9 years - Arizona, colorado, and new york, 2010. Mmwr. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 64, 3, 54-7. This research was conducted by Fox et al. with the purpose of identifying the prevalence of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) within the population of children who are between the age of 7 and 9 years and are living in the regions of Arizona, Colorado and New York. The researchers were able to identify that 0.3 children out of every 1000 between the age of 7 to 9 were experiencing FAS in the region of Arizona and Colorado and in the region of New York the prevalence was 0.8 children out of every 1000. This research will be used in the workshop to highlight the difference in prevalence depending upon the region. Jacobson, S. W., Stanton, M. E., Dodge, N. C., Pienaar, M., Fuller, D. S., Molteno, C. D., Meintjes, E. M., ... Jacobson, J. L. (February 01, 2011). Impaired Delay and Trace Eyeblink Conditioning in School-Age Children With Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 35, 2, 250-264. This research was conducted by Jacobson et al. and the purpose of this research was to identify the lack of Classical Eye blinking Conditioning (EBC) amongst the population of those children who were exposed to alcohol when they were in the mother’s womb (Jacobson et al., 2011). The research was conducted on the population of children living in the region of Cape Coloured, South Africa. The researchers were able to identify that 33% of those who were suffering from FAS and 43 percent of those children who were heavily exposed to alcohol were experiencing impairment of EBC. This research will be used to point out the impairments that children suffer if they have developed FAS. Cannon, M. J., Dominique, Y., O'Leary, L. A., Sniezek, J. E., & Floyd, R. L. (January 01, 2012). Characteristics and behaviors of mothers who have a child with fetal alcohol syndrome. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 34, 1, 90-95. This research was conducted by Cannon et al. with the purpose of identifying the traits as well as the activities of mothers whose children are experiencing Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (Cannon et al., 2012). The authors were able to identify that the mothers of children who were experiencing FAS belonged to minority ethnic groups such as African Americans, they were quite older in age, most of them were unmarried and were even out of work, they were not quite well educated and had a habit of smoking at the time of pregnancy. The findings of this study is quite relevant to the workshop as it will help in identifying the causes of FAS which may include cigarette smoking as well as living conditions. Olivier, L., Urban, M., Chersich, M., Temmerman, M., & Viljoen, D. (January 01, 2013). Burden of fetal alcohol syndrome in a rural West Coast area of South Africa. South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif Vir Geneeskunde, 103, 6, 402-5. This research was conducted by Olivier et al. in order to identify the prevalence of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome in a rural region of the nation of South Africa (Olivier et al., 2013). The study was conducted because the prevalence of FAS is quite high in South Africa. The researchers identified that 78 of the 160 children who were screened for the FAS were experiencing the syndrome. The researchers state that this study provides evidence the prevalence of FAS is quite high in regions that are located in isolated regions. The findings of this study will be used to provide information regarding the difference in prevalence of FAS from region to region. Rangmar, J., Hjern, A., Vinnerljung, B., Strömland, K., Aronson, M., & Fahlke, C. (January 01, 2015). Psychosocial outcomes of fetal alcohol syndrome in adulthood. Pediatrics, 135, 1, 52-8. This study was conducted by Rangmar et al. and the purpose of the study was to identify the impact of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome on a child’s psychosocial outcomes during the period of adulthood because it has been established the FAS has long-term consequences (Rangmar, 2015). The researchers were able to identify that these adults did not have a job, had criminal charges filed against them, had to attain special education and were receiving disability pension. This research will be used as supportive evidence to support the sections that due to exposure to substances at the time of birth a child’s future life is even ruined. Molteno, C. D., Jacobson, J. L., Carter, R. C., Dodge, N. C., & Jacobson, S. W. (February 01, 2014). Infant Emotional Withdrawal: A Precursor of Affective and Cognitive Disturbance in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 38, 2, 479-488. This study was conducted by Molteno et al. in order to identify whether children who were exposed to substances such as alcohol at the time of their birth experienced the issue of emotional withdrawal (Molteno et al., 2014). In this study the researchers used the metrics of emotional withdrawal as a sign of identifying whether a child had been exposed to substances at their birth time. The researchers identified that if a child exhibits emotional withdrawal at an early age that may have been caused due to their exposure to substance such as alcohol abuse. The research even suggests that these children experience low IQ levels as they grow older. The findings of this research can be cited in the workshop under the section of signs and symptoms associated with FAS. Rovet, Joanne, & Stevens, Sara. (2012). Social Cognition: Theory and Neuroscience in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Rovet et al. conducted this study in order to identify various impairments experienced by children suffering from Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (Rovet et al., 2012). The impairments that were studied by the researchers included social, psychological as well as behavioral impairments. The research helped in identifying that children who suffer from FAS experienced failure to process others and their own facial features. Furthermore these children even experienced failure to shift their attention in compliance with changes in position of cues and they even failed to recognize and react to social emotional expression. The researchers state that these children exhibited similar signs that are exhibited by children who are suffering from autism. This study will be used as evidence to back up claims that children suffering from FAS experience various impairments. Pei, J., Denys, K., Hughes, J., & Rasmussen, C. (January 01, 2011). Mental health issues in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Journal of Mental Health, 20, 5, 473-483. Pei et al. conducted this study in order to identify various psychological and cognitive issues experienced by children who are suffering from Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD). The researchers conducted a review of literature and were able to determine that these children experienced external as well as internal mental health issues. The researchers even identified that these issues may be caused due to various factors including neurophysiological factors. The findings of this research will be used to focus on the theoretical foundations of the disorder and the various issues children experience as a result of this disorder. Watson, S. L., Coons, K. D., & Hayes, S. A. (June 01, 2013). Autism spectrum disorder and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Part I: A comparison of parenting stress. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability, 38, 2, 95-104. Watson et al. conducted this research in order to identify the difference in levels of stress that parents as well as children experience due to children being diagnosed and treated for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD). The researchers were able to identify that the level of stress for children suffering from FASD and their parents was higher as compared to those experienced ASD. This research can be used as evidence to support the point that mental health issues are not only suffered by children who are suffering from FASD, but even by their parents. Wheeler, S. M., Stevens, S. A., Sheard, E. D., & Rovet, J. F. (October 03, 2011). Facial memory deficits in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Child Neuropsychology, 1-8. Wheeler et al. conducted this study to identify the various neurobehavioral issues experienced by children who have been exposed to prenatal consumption and abuse of alcohol. Children who were exposed to prenatal alcohol consumption experienced delay in their ability to memorize as well as recall faces of individuals they have already been exposed to as compared to children who have not been exposed to prenatal consumption of alcohol. The findings of this research will be used to talk about the issues associated with learning and memory of children experiencing FAS. Ingersoll, K. S., Ceperich, S. D., Hettema, J. E., Farrell-Carnahan, L., & Penberthy, J. K. (January 01, 2013). Preconceptional motivational interviewing interventions to reduce alcohol-exposed pregnancy risk. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 44, 4, 407-16. Ingersoll et al. conducted this study in order to identify the role played by Preconceptional motivational interviews in helping reducing mother’s indulgence in substance abuse and alcohol abuse at the time of pregnancy (Ingersoll et al., 2013). The researchers were able to identify that different forms of motivational interviews helped in decreasing the number of drinks that mothers consumed on every event in which drinking took place. Findings of this study can be used in the workshop to focus on ways of preventing Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Lebel, C., Mattson, S. N., Riley, E. P., Jones, K. L., Adnams, C. M., May, P. A., Bookheimer, S. Y., ... Sowell, E. R. (January 01, 2012). A longitudinal study of the long-term consequences of drinking during pregnancy: heavy in utero alcohol exposure disrupts the normal processes of brain development. The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 32, 44, 15243-51. Lebel et al. conducted this study in order to identify the impact of prenatal alcohol consumption on the brain development of a child (Lebel et al., 2012). The researchers were able to identify that exposure to prenatal alcohol consumption hampered the development of the child’s brain and resulted in decreased levels of plasticity. Furthermore, these children even experienced lower levels of intelligence. The findings of this study will be used to provide evidence for the statement that prenatal drug exposure resulted in hampering the brain development of fetus. Li, Q., Fisher, W. W., Peng, C.-Z., Williams, A. D., & Burd, L. (August 01, 2012). Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: A Population Based Study of Premature Mortality Rates in the Mothers. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 16, 6, 1332-1337. Li et al. conducted this study in order to identify the mortality rates experienced by the mothers of those individuals who are already experiencing Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD) (Li et al., 2012). This study was conducted on the participants located in the region of North Dakota. The researchers were able to identify that that the rate of mortality was quite high among the population of mothers whose children were diagnosed with FASD. The researchers even identified that most of these mothers experienced death at an age of only 50 and the most common cited conditions that led to their demise included cancer, injuries as well as conditions related to consumption of alcohol. This study will be used in the workshop to talk about the problems faced by mother who give birth to children suffering from FASD. Mattson, S. N., Crocker, N., & Nguyen, T. T. (January 01, 2011). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: neuropsychological and behavioral features. Neuropsychology Review, 21, 2, 81-101. This study was conducted by Mattson et al. in order to review the impact of prenatal alcohol consumption on the behavioral as well as neurobehavioral aspects of children (Mattson et al., 2011). The researchers were able to identify that those children who are exposed to prenatal consumption of alcohol experienced decline in their capacity of intellect and these children even experience deterioration of the executive function of the brain. The study even pays emphasis to variation in impact dependent on variation in consumption behavior. This study will be used in the workshop to identify the brain development of a child who is exposed to prenatal substance abuse and this study will even be used to identify the levels of substance that are safe to consume at the time of pregnancy. Landgraf, Mirjam N., Monika Nothacker, and Florian Heinen. 'Diagnosis Of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): German Guideline Version 2013'. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology 17.5 (2013): 437-446. Web. Landgraf et al. conducted this study in order to outline the guidelines regarding the diagnosis of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (Landgraf et al., 2013). The author states that the guideline provide a method of diagnosis that is objective in nature, it is based on evidence-based practice and has relevance with practice. The author states that the guidelines has identified a diagnostic criteria in which a children is diagnosed with FAS if he/she is suffering from improper growth of one particular area, if the child has three facial characteristics that are not appropriate and may be experiencing a functional abnormality of the central nervous system. Pruett, D., Waterman, E. H., & Caughey, A. B. (January 01, 2013). Fetal Alcohol Exposure: Consequences, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 68, 1, 62-69. In this article the author Pruett et al. outlines various consequences as well as methods of diagnosing and treating children suffering from prenatal exposure to alcohol consumption (Pruett et al., 2013). The author states that one of the consequences that have been well establish and reported is fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Furthermore children suffering from this disorder experience underdeveloped intellect and behavioral ramification. The author even outlines the way through which alcohol impacts the fetus and the time at which the impact is greatest. This article will be used in various sections of the workshop while discussing the impact of prenatal substance abuse on fetal and children, the method of diagnosing exposure as well as treatment options available. Wells, A. M., Chasnoff, I. J., Schmidt, C. A., Telford, E., & Schwartz, L. D. (January 01, 2012). Neurocognitive habilitation therapy for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: an adaptation of the Alert Program®. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy : Official Publication of the American Occupational Therapy Association, 66, 1.) Wells et al. conducted this study in order to identify the effectiveness of treating children suffering from fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) with neurocognitive habilitation (Wells et al., 2012). The intervention that the researchers tried to explore is a group based therapy. The authors identified that this method of treating children helped in improving a child’s executive functioning as well as their problem solving abilities of solving emotional issues. This study will be used in the discussion of treatment for children who are exposed to prenatal substance abuse. Nash, K., Stevens, S., Greenbaum, R., Weiner, J., Koren, G., & Rovet, J. (April 03, 2014). Improving executive functioning in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Child Neuropsychology, 21, 2, 191-209. Nash et al. conducted this study with the aim of identifying treatment methods for improving the children’s management of cognitive processes (Nash et al., 2014). The children that were being studied in this study were experiencing Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) and their management of psychological process had been hampered. The researchers were able to identify that the management of psychological process of children suffering from FAS improved when they were treated with therapy in a continuous manner and the researchers even identified that in order to treat these children the psychologists need to adopt a targeted treatment approach. This study will be used in the workshop to focus on treatment options and intervals of treatments. Stevens, S. A., Dudek, J., Nash, K., Koren, G., & Rovet, J. (January 26, 2015). Social Perspective Taking and Empathy in Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21, 1, 74-84. Stevens et al. conducted this study in order to identify the impact of prenatal alcohol exposure on the children’s ability to empathize as well as viewing a particular scenario from the point of view of socializing agents such as parents (Stevens et al., 2015). The authors identified that children who had experienced prenatal exposure to alcohol lacked social cognition and even scored low on the ability to empathize with others. This study will be used in the workshop to provide evidence for the cognitive disabilities experienced by children because of their exposure to prenatal alcohol consumption. References Ballard, M. S., Sun, M., & Ko, J. (January 01, 2012). Vitamin A, folate, and choline as a possible preventive intervention to fetal alcohol syndrome. Medical Hypotheses, 78, 4, 489-93. Behnke, M., Smith, V. C., Committee on Substance Abuse, & Committee on Fetus and Newborn. (January 01, 2013). Prenatal substance abuse: short- and long-term effects on the exposed fetus. Pediatrics, 131, 3, 1009-24. Buka, S. L., Shenassa, E. D., & Niaura, R. (January 01, 2003). Elevated risk of tobacco dependence among offspring of mothers who smoked during pregnancy: a 30-year prospective study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 11, 1978-84. Cannon, M. J., Dominique, Y., O'Leary, L. A., Sniezek, J. E., & Floyd, R. L. (January 01, 2012). Characteristics and behaviors of mothers who have a child with fetal alcohol syndrome. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 34, 1, 90-95. Carter, R. C., Jacobson, J. L., Sokol, R. J., Avison, M. J., & Jacobson, S. W. (January 01, 2013). Fetal alcohol-related growth restriction from birth through young adulthood and moderating effects of maternal prepregnancy weight. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 37, 3, 452-62. D’Onofrio, B., Rickert, M., Langström, N., Donahue, K., Coyne, C., & Larsson, H. et al. (2012). Familial Confounding of the Association Between Maternal Smoking During Pregnancy and Offspring Substance Use and Problems. Arch Gen Psychiatry, 69(11), 1140. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2107 Fox, D. J., Pettygrove, S., Cunniff, C., O'Leary, L. A., Gilboa, S. M., Bertrand, J., Druschel, C. M., ... Meaney, F. J. (January 01, 2015). Fetal alcohol syndrome among children aged 7-9 years - Arizona, colorado, and new york, 2010. Mmwr. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 64, 3, 54-7. Ingersoll, K. S., Ceperich, S. D., Hettema, J. E., Farrell-Carnahan, L., & Penberthy, J. K. (January 01, 2013). Preconceptional motivational interviewing interventions to reduce alcohol-exposed pregnancy risk. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 44, 4, 407-16. Jacobson, S. W., Stanton, M. E., Dodge, N. C., Pienaar, M., Fuller, D. S., Molteno, C. D., Meintjes, E. M., ... Jacobson, J. L. (February 01, 2011). Impaired Delay and Trace Eyeblink Conditioning in School-Age Children With Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 35, 2, 250-264. Janisse, J. J., Bailey, B. A., Ager, J., & Sokol, R. J. (March 03, 2014). Alcohol, Tobacco, Cocaine, and Marijuana Use: Relative Contributions to Preterm Delivery and Fetal Growth Restriction. Substance Abuse, 35, 1, 60-67. LaGasse, L. L., Derauf, C., Smith, L. M., Newman, E., Shah, R., Neal, C., Arria, A., ... Lester, B. M. (January 01, 2012). Prenatal methamphetamine exposure and childhood behavior problems at 3 and 5 years of age. Pediatrics, 129, 4, 681-8. Lambert, B., Bann, C., Bauer, C., Shankaran, S., Bada, H., & Lester, B. et al. (2013). Risk-Taking Behavior Among Adolescents with Prenatal Drug Exposure and Extrauterine Environmental Adversity. Journal Of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 34(9), 669-679. doi:10.1097/01.dbp.0000437726.16588.e2 Landgraf, Mirjam N., Monika Nothacker, and Florian Heinen. 'Diagnosis Of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): German Guideline Version 2013'. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology 17.5 (2013): 437-446. Web. Lebel, C., Mattson, S. N., Riley, E. P., Jones, K. L., Adnams, C. M., May, P. A., Bookheimer, S. Y., ... Sowell, E. R. (January 01, 2012). A longitudinal study of the long-term consequences of drinking during pregnancy: heavy in utero alcohol exposure disrupts the normal processes of brain development. The Journal of Neuroscience : the Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 32, 44, 15243-51. Li, Q., Fisher, W. W., Peng, C.-Z., Williams, A. D., & Burd, L. (August 01, 2012). Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders: A Population Based Study of Premature Mortality Rates in the Mothers. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 16, 6, 1332-1337. Mattson, S. N., Crocker, N., & Nguyen, T. T. (January 01, 2011). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: neuropsychological and behavioral features. Neuropsychology Review, 21, 2, 81-101. Molteno, C. D., Jacobson, J. L., Carter, R. C., Dodge, N. C., & Jacobson, S. W. (February 01, 2014). Infant Emotional Withdrawal: A Precursor of Affective and Cognitive Disturbance in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 38, 2, 479-488. Nash, K., Stevens, S., Greenbaum, R., Weiner, J., Koren, G., & Rovet, J. (April 03, 2014). Improving executive functioning in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Child Neuropsychology, 21, 2, 191-209. O'Leary, Colleen, & Bower, C. (2012). Fetal alcohol syndrome. Curtin University of Technology, Curtin University. Olivier, L., Urban, M., Chersich, M., Temmerman, M., & Viljoen, D. (January 01, 2013). Burden of fetal alcohol syndrome in a rural West Coast area of South Africa. South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif Vir Geneeskunde, 103, 6, 402-5. Pei, J., Denys, K., Hughes, J., & Rasmussen, C. (January 01, 2011). Mental health issues in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Journal of Mental Health, 20, 5, 473-483. Popova, S., Lange, S., Burd, L., Rehm, J., & Hausmann-Muela, S. C. (August 10, 2012). Health Care Burden and Cost Associated with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Based on Official Canadian Data. Plos One, 7, 8.) Pruett, D., Waterman, E. H., & Caughey, A. B. (January 01, 2013). Fetal Alcohol Exposure: Consequences, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 68, 1, 62-69. Rangmar, J., Hjern, A., Vinnerljung, B., Strömland, K., Aronson, M., & Fahlke, C. (January 01, 2015). Psychosocial outcomes of fetal alcohol syndrome in adulthood. Pediatrics, 135, 1, 52-8. Richardson, G. A., Larkby, C., Goldschmidt, L., & Day, N. L. (January 01, 2013). Adolescent Initiation of Drug Use: Effects of Prenatal Cocaine Exposure. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 1, 37-46. Rovet, Joanne, & Stevens, Sara. (2012). Social Cognition: Theory and Neuroscience in Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Stevens, S. 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