Cognitive Priming and its Role in Learning and Academic Performance - Research Proposal Example

Cognitive Priming and its Role in Learning and Academic Performance February 15, Cognitive Priming and its Role in Learning and Academic Performance Subconscious learning has been the center of many studies for the past thirty years because several studies showed that a large bulk of human behavior is learned through subconscious learning (Chalfoun & Frasson, 2012; Dennis, Minas, & Bhagwatwar, 2013, p.196; Radel et al., 2009). Understanding how cognition happens unconsciously and how to influence unconscious cognition can help improve knowledge about learning mechanisms. Unconscious mechanisms can then be used to directly impact learning and enhance academic performance. These mechanisms can also help understand learning difficulties. This paper aims to answer the following research questions: (1) What is cognitive priming? (2) What is the role of cognitive priming in learning in general? And (3) What is the role of cognitive priming in academic performance specifically? It intends to answer these questions through secondary research. It relied on academic journals from the Internet and library databases and books for its main resources. Definition of Terms Chalfoun and Frasson (2012) defined important concepts related to subconscious learning. Unconscious cognition pertains to the broad range of potential effects of unconscious brain mechanisms on cognitive processes, including learning and decision-making (Chalfoun & Frasson, 2012, p.85). Non-conscious perception is a sub-part of unconscious cognition, where people unconsciously process sensory-based stimuli (Chalfoun & Frasson, 2012, p.85). Subliminal perception is an information-transmission technique that avoids overloading active cognition by using a stimulus, called prime, below the conscious human cognition level (Chalfoun & Frasson, 2012, p.85). Masked priming is one of the most familiar subliminal perception techniques. It projects a prime (e.g. word or images) for a very short period of time, followed by a mask (e.g. random figures) (Chalfoun & Frasson, 2012, p.85). Cognitive priming is a kind of subliminal perception strategy, where a stimulus is employed to improve cognitive processes, such as learning and reasoning, in order to boost knowledge acquisition (Chalfoun & Frasson, 2012, p.85). Negative priming refers to the process of implicit memory where preceding exposure to a stimulus results to unfavorable effects when the same stimulus is introduced again (Egner & Hirsch, 2005, p. 1774). Distractors can be used to negatively affect memory and learning through selective attention mechanisms (Egner & Hirsch, 2005, p. 1774). Selective attention pertains to the capability to distribute perceptual or higher-order resources to attributes that are important to cognitive goals of internal or external conditions preferentially, which produce better processing of the chosen attributes than non-chosen ones (Egner & Hirsch, 2005, p. 1774). Besides these terms, affect regulation can impact the effectiveness of cognitive priming (Storbeck & Gerald, 2008). Affect, or emotions and moods, can shape cognitive priming through the mood-congruent mechanism (Storbeck & Gerald, 2008). The mood-congruent memory hypothesis asserts that emotions enhance the recall of mood-congruent memories. For instance, positive moods can shape semantic priming (Storbeck & Gerald, 2008, p.209). Semantic priming is a dependable implicit measure of semantic connections, while affective priming is another reliable way of determining affective connections (Storbeck & Gerald, 2008, p.209). Priming, in this case, pertains to the speed of response when target words/affect come after semantically related words than with unrelated semantic primes (Storbeck & Gerald, 2008, p.209). Cognitive priming, thus, is not limited to cognitive primes, but also to the valence of affects that are related to these primes, either through direct manipulation of the studies or via the individual differences of subjects who participated in studies. Review of Literature Role of Cognitive Priming in Learning in General Cognitive priming may have a role in learning through the activation of memory network models and other different impacts on memory mechanisms. Activation can spread connections from the prime to the target, when two words share an association in the semantic memory, an association which affects decisions about the target (Storbeck & Gerald, 2008, p.209). The activation of related concepts appears to happen automatically and without exertion of outward intention for semantic priming and affective priming (Storbeck & Gerald, 2008, p.209). Negative priming can shape episodic memory retrieval functions (Egner & Hirsch, 2005). Negative priming helps understand selective attention processes for healthy individuals and those with disordered cognition, particularly since some studies showed that patients with schizophrenia had lower negative priming levels compared to healthy subjects (MacQueen, Galway, Goldberg, & Tipper, 2003 as cited in Egner & Hirsch, 2005, p. 1774). The selective inhibition model of negative priming believes that mental models for attended (target) and disregarded (distractor) stimuli or related characteristics are originally stimulated, but that abruptly after attentional selection, the distractor’s representations become actively restrained (Egner & Hirsch, 2005, p. 1774). Inhibition may then slow down response during probe trials. Negative priming can help understand obstructions to memory processes, such as encoding and recall, and how challenging the brain’s resources can also still improve the learning process through strong memory effects. Egner and Hirsch (2005) studied the mechanisms of negative priming through evaluating neurophysiological models from negative priming hypotheses, where their means were fMRI measures of neural activity that were event-related and responded to probe stimuli that were tested during no priming or negative priming for a color-naming Stroop activity. Their sampling included 17 adults with an age range of 17 to 33 years old. Their findings showed that negative priming was related to higher activity in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and the mediodorsal nucleus (MDn) of the right thalamus (Egner & Hirsch, 2005, p. 1779). Egner and Hirsch (2005) interpreted that the data provided evidence that negative priming on target determination activities came from the automatic memory retrieval of preceding episodes that involved the stimulus and connected representations, and so their findings demonstrate the relationship between episodic memory and selective attention processes (p. 1779). Egner and Hirsch (2005) further explained that literature shows that right dorsolateral areas may be seen as particularly active in monitoring the suitability of episodically retrieved information for existing tasks. This monitoring ability may be supported through the cue specification function that could be due to the mediation of the right posterior ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC). The DLPFC focuses on the monitoring and assessment of information recalled through episodic memory, while VLPFC endorses the specification for retrieval cues (Egner & Hirsch, 2005, pp. 1775-1776). If VLPFC considers that the present contents of episodic retrieval are inadequate, it asks for more retrieval processes (Egner & Hirsch, 2005, p. 1780). The findings of Egner and Hirsch (2005) suggests that negative priming is related to superior monitoring, evaluating, and demanding for more retrieval of needed episodic memories. Such processes consume longer time, which result to slower responses to negatively primed probes. Priming, based on this study, influences memory functions that shape learning effectiveness. If negative priming can impact episodic memory retrieval functions, multiple semantic priming can affect memory recall and understanding language (Lavigne, Dumercy, & Darmon, 2011). Learning involves language comprehension and the latter requires the ability to recall contextual knowledge in memory as needed in real time (Lavigne et al., 2011, p. 1447). Lavigne et al. (2011) aimed to offer a broad view of the present literature on the determining factors of multiple semantic priming that help understand if multiple priming prodice additive, underadditive, or overadditive effects on language comprehension. They used a meta-analytical method to identify moderator variables that were included in the questions of “if” and “to what extent.” They also wanted to offer some explanations on how experimental states, protocols, and neuron properties (e.g. spike frequency adaptation (SFA)) shape the actions of a computer model of a cortical network. They believe that their model can expand the understanding for semantic priming impacts in the cerebral cortex. Their findings showed that SFA could be a significant mechanism that averts overadditive effects from happening by decreasing the activation of first primes and their related contents (Lavigne et al., 2011, p. 1466). Furthermore, the model suggests that the activation and inhibition of a target can affect multiple priming through the mediation of the timing of presentation, condition of relatedness, and synaptic matrix (Lavigne et al., 2011, p. 1469). This study is limited by not showing the localization of neurons during multiple priming, but it suggests brain areas that are involved in the latter, such as the frontal cortex and anterior temporal lobe for semantic processing (Lavigne et al., 2011, p. 1469). Besides multiple priming, another mechanism for explaining cognitive priming’s impact on learning is through stimulus repetition. Stimulus repetition can facilitate repeated cognitive processes and the retrieval of formerly-embedded stimulus-response (SR) bindings (Horner & Henson, 2012). Repetitive stimulus exposure usually produces faster cognitive processing. It can be measured through faster repetition priming (RT) or better accuracy when doing indirect memory tasks (Richardson-Klavehn & Bjork, 1988 as cited in Horner & Henson, 2012, p. 760). Repetition priming may also happen together with neural decreases that can be determined through fMRI in cortical regions that participate in initial stimulus processing, which researchers call as repetition suppression (RS) (Grill-Spector, Henson, & Martin, 2006 as cited in Horner & Henson, 2012, p. 760). These behavioral and neural repetition impacts may be due to SR bindings. SR bindings state that, when a response is taken from a stimulus through a specific task, the co-occurrence of the two might be due to the creation of a direct SR binding. The next encounters with the stimulus can stimulate cue retrieval for these bindings that happened for task switching, subliminal priming, and negative priming (Horner & Henson, 2012, p. 760). Horner and Henson (2012) conducted fMRI on 18 subjects and ECG on 18 more to study a long-lag classification priming model that needed response repetitions or reversals during several levels of response representations. Their findings showed support for a spatiotemporal dissociation between component processes (CPs) activated during initial and succeeding stimulus presentation and SR impacts on repetition-based neural changes. SR effects were evident in the inferior prefrontal region which indicates that stimuli within S-R bindings can be turned into codes for the learning of abstract representations (Horner & Henson, 2012, p. 772). Though priming can enhance learning through memory mechanisms, it can also obstruct new episodic learning (Wagner, Maril, & Schacter, 2000). Wagner et al. (2000) tested their hypothesis that priming for previous experiences can delay new episodic encoding. Episodic encoding pertains to the occurrences that change received information into a lasting memory representation which improves future conscious remembering (Tulving, 1983 as cited in Wagner et al., 2000, p. 52). Wagner et al. (2000) used fMRI to determine behavioral and neural priming’s effects on episodic encoding. Their findings showed that, as subjects reprocessed a stimulus, their behavioral and neural measures indicated negative association with the repeated memory. This study supports that priming using past experiences can inhibit new episodic encoding, as well as explicit memory and subsequent memory. When implicit and explicit forms of memory are cross talking, implicit memory may work against learning through obstructing new episodic learning (Wagner et al., 2000, p. 56). This association is not causative, however, and other factors may impact the cross-talking effects between explicit and implicit memory (Wagner et al., 2000, p. 56). Role of Cognitive Priming in Academic Performance If cognitive priming can affect learning at different extents, it can shape academic performance too, first, through subliminal perception. Subliminal perception can be used to improve academic motivation that can enhance academic performance (Radel et al., 2009). Radel et al. (2009) believed that students who received priming for autonomous motivation would be more interested in their classes and perform better on their quiz than students primed with a controlled motivation. They also hypothesized that mindfulness moderated the performance impacts of priming, wherein more mindful students would be less susceptible to priming than less mindful ones. They conducted a control group study involving 88 first-year undergraduate students in France. Their findings did not support the hypothesis that subliminal words improved test scores, although autonomous motivation priming did improve performance to some extent. Findings also showed that mindful students were less prone to primes than less mindful students. Motivational priming may be used to improve academic performance subliminally (Radel et al., 2009, p. 698). Cognitive priming can also use intelligence primes to increase test results (Lowery et al., 2007). Lowery et al. (2007) determined if subliminal priming could result to long-term impacts on the degree by which primes affect behavior on a proximal task that may be acting as practice for a future distal task. Their sampling included 70 undergraduate students taking a psychology course. They conducted two experiments. For Experiments 1 and 2, they divided participants into those who were exposed to subliminal primes for words related to or not related to intelligence before finishing a practice exam 1 to 4 days before the midterm course. Their findings showed that intelligence primes improved performance than those who were exposed to neutral primes. In Experiment 1, the researchers informed the students of the priming task and this moderated the impacts of the intelligence primes. In Experiment 2, the practice test itself mediated the scores for midterm tests. Lowery et al. (2007) concluded that subliminal priming can have positive academic performance effects through long-term priming activation (p 156). The stereotypes or relations involved in these intelligent primes require further investigation, however. The exact mechanisms that help explain such correlations, furthermore, were not part of the explorations of the study. Finally, as the first part of the literature indicated, priming can be used to improve academic performance through enhancing learning mechanisms (Gorlick & Maddox, 2013). Gorlick and Maddox (2013) examined if negative arousal boosts declarative-memory-mediated learning and decreases perceptual-representation-mediated learning, and if positive arousal results to an opposite pattern. Their sampling included 145 undergraduates with an age range of 18 to 35 years old. They noted that prototype learning helped test dissociable declarative-memory and perceptual-epresentation systems by mediating two-prototype (AB) and one-prototype (AN) prototype learning, correspondingly. They also used computer models to understand related cognitive processes. Their findings showed that negative arousal decreased attentional focus that improved AB learning, but hampered AN learning, while positive arousal expanded attentional focus that improved AN learning, while decreasing AB learning. They noted the implication that stimulus dimensionality may play a role in the learning system and moods that impact academic outcomes (Gorlick & Maddox, 2013, p. 8). They concluded that the valence of emotional stimulus may have critical effects on learning, which can impair or support academic performance (Gorlick & Maddox, 2013, p. 8). Another impact of the learning mechanism on academic success is through creativity primes. Dennis, Minas, and Bhagwatwar (2013) used an online computer game to determine if creativity primes improved the quantity and quality of ideas afterwards per team. They used supraliminal priming wherein users know the priming, but not the purpose. Their sampling involved 175 undergraduates with a mean age of 19.6 years old. Their findings showed that users who played the game generated more ideas than those who were exposed to neutral priming. They could not explain the priming mechanisms that are most important to team decision-making, nevertheless. Cognitive priming methods can be ways for improving creativity that enhance discussions, which in turn may result to quality ideas and projects that produce better grades in class. Conclusions and Recommendations Cognitive priming has multiple methods, so it can activate different memory mechanisms and models (Horner & Henson, 2012). It can enhance memory retrieval through repetitive stimulus or the use of valence and other factors that make recall easier and faster (Gorlick & Maddox, 2013; Lavigne et al., 2011). It can also lead to SR bindings that are more effective in encoding information for better recall later on (Horner & Henson, 2012, p. 772). Furthermore, cognitive priming can enhance academic outcome through the use of particular cognitive primes with valence considerations (Lowery et al., 2007). Future studies should explore different kinds of priming conditions and how they can impact cognition and affect for individuals and teams, groups, and classrooms. References Chalfoun, P., & Frasson, C. (2012). Cognitive priming: Assessing the use of non-conscious perception to enhance learner’s reasoning ability. Intelligent Tutoring Systems: 11th International Conference, 84-90. London: Springer. Dennis, A.R., Minas, R.K., & Bhagwatwar, A.P. (2013). Sparking creativity: Improving electronic brainstorming with individual cognitive priming. Journal of Management Information Systems, 29(4), 195-216. Egner, T., & Hirsch, J. (2005). Where memory meets attention: Neural substrates of negative priming. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(11), 1774-1784. Gorlick, M.A., & Maddox, W.T. (2013). Priming for performance: Valence of emotional primes interact with dissociable prototype learning systems. PLoS ONE, 8(4), 1-8. Horner, A.J., & Henson, R.N. (2012). Incongruent abstract stimulus-response bindings result in response interference: fMRI and EEG evidence from visual object classification priming. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24(4), 760-773. Lavigne, F., Dumercy, L., & Darmon, N. (2011). Determinants of multiple semantic priming: A meta-analysis and spike frequency adaptive model of a cortical network. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(6), 1447-1474. Lowery, B.S., Eisenberger, N.I., Hardin, C.D., & Sinclair, S. (2007). Long-term effects of subliminal priming on academic performance. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 29(2),151-157. Radel, R., Sarrazin, P., Legrain, P., & Gobancé, L. (2009). Subliminal priming of motivational orientation in educational settings: Effect on academic performance moderated by mindfulness. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(4), 695-698. Storbeck, J.C., & Gerald, L. (2008). The affective regulation of cognitive priming. Emotion, 8(2), 208-215. Wagner, A.D., Maril, A., & Schacter, D.L. (2000). Interactions between forms of memory: When priming hinders new episodic learning. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(6), 52-60. Read More