False Autobiographical Memory in Children - Coursework Example

False Autobiographical Memory in Children [Pick the Introduction The role of memory in the performance of daily jobs cannot be overstressed. From performing simple daily routines to tasks that require extreme levels of mental functioning along with data interpretation and integration; memory performs a central role. Broadly classified into the short-term and the long-term memory types; memory is a vast subject that has attracted researchers from both psychological as well as neurological backgrounds due to its extreme complexity. Various theories regarding the physiological aspects of memory exist; the most widely accepted model however relates memory to the presence of ‘synapses’, which are present throughout the nervous system and are related to communication between the neurons, which are essentially the functional units of the entire nervous system. Synapses may facilitate or hinder the transmission of nervous impulses; this is largely a function of the complex interaction of the neurotransmitters and their relationship with their immediate physiological environment. It is interesting to note however, that this process of memory may function in an abnormal pattern, thereby allowing the creation of memory imprints that are not based on real experiences, but are instead generated due to a number of other psychological processes that collectively contribute to development of memories that are false in nature. This may have minimally-affecting to grossly-detrimental influences on the lives of people. This phenomenon becomes extremely important when certain tasks demand total reliability on the existing memory of a person; e.g. criminal investigation procedures in which evidence is sought from people who are the direct witness of a crime. Discussion The presence of false memories is manifested by remembering events in a manner different from how they actually took place. Although this may be observed in adults; the phenomenon is more commonly seen in children who are able recall unreal events with more confidence and details. In extreme cases, subjects may recall incidents that in reality never happened. Such memories are considered true by these children and those possessing such memories are totally confident about the authenticity of such memories. Attempts to convince such individuals about a lack of connection of such memories to reality may prove futile, since the vast majority of such individuals hold such memories with a higher level of confidence. In the normally developing children, the process of memory storage and retrieval continues to improve with growing age. This process is in close alignment to the other systems, organs and functions of the body, which also grow with increasing age. As far as the retrieval of stored memories is concerned, younger children are more likely to recall details of older events in a general manner while failing to recall specific and detailed information regarding events of the past. With the passage of time and with growing age, this capability is improved; therefore older children are more likely to produce detailed accounts of the happenings of their life; hence are able to retrieve specific details of the events of the past from their memories. The reduction in the level of autobiographical memory specificity among younger children, has also been attributed to a number of other factors like obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression and traumatic experiences (Rubin et al, 2004). Autobiographical memory specificity has been a subject of much interest in psychological circles and this has been studied in relation to the presence of a history of child sexual abuse or other traumatic incidents in early childhood. It has been observed that some adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse demonstrate deficits in autobiographical memory (Ogle et al, 2013). Others have proposed that the opposite is true and victims of child sexual abuse or other traumatic incidents of life have accurate memories (Alexander et al, 2005). In an attempt to explain this discrepancy, the theory of autobiographical memory specificity has been proposed. According to this theory, the presence of a history of childhood trauma leads to the development of ‘overgeneral memory’ which is a tendency of such individuals to retrieve painful memory traces of the past in a manner that lacks temporal or spatial details. Such individuals are inclined towards reporting memories in a more general way; this has been attributed to overgeneral autobiographical memory development (Williams, 1996). The understanding behind the development of this theory is the fact that most of the individuals avoid getting trapped into the fine details of the traumatic happenings of the past, which can be considered functional avoidance. When adults with a positive history of traumatic childhood attempt to retrieve the fine details of the memories of the past, their retrieval processes is truncated at a level that provides them access to general information but does not allow access beyond this level; this is a safety mechanism to prevent the individual from getting affected by the negative influence of such painful memories of childhood. The information produced by such individuals is therefore of general nature and lacks specific details. Research in this area has pointed towards a number of factors that contribute towards the creation of memories that are false in nature. Neurological factors may involve factors like brain damage affecting frontal regions, weak traces of memory, delusional memory, errors in source memory etc. (Schacter, 1999). Some of the important factors are discussed as under; 1 – Inferences and previous knowledge The establishment of new memory traces is affected to a great extent by the type and level of previously held knowledge about the situation at hand. If previous experiences of similar conditions have been favorable, it is likely that the memory traces developed as a result of exposure to this similar situation are pleasant in nature and vice versa. Based on the previous knowledge and experience, human mind is inclined towards making inferences about the situation at hand (Lockhart and Craik, 1990). Although, this is contributory towards learning under ordinary conditions; this process may also contribute towards the development of memory traces, which may later be retrieved by the individual only to discover that they are incorrect and have no relationship to the reality. Human beings have an inherent tendency to derive meanings from events that take place in their environment. In this sense and also due to the fact that such meanings are in alignment to their previous experiences, it is safe to assert that human beings have a tendency to adopt a biased approach towards different happenings of the life. For this reason, the memory traces that develop as a result of this process are in alignment with the inferences of the person and not according to the reality of a given situation. The ultimate result of this process is therefore the development of memory traces that are false in nature. 2 – Similarity and the formation of illusory memories The tendency to form illusory memories upon exposure to events or persons of similar nature or appearance is well documented. It is very common for humans to confuse original people or events with similar people or events, which they experience or witness later on in their lives. This is especially true in the case of children, whose memory is in the process of continuous evolution and improvement with their growing age and experience regarding different aspects of the life. Exposure to event or objects of similar nature may therefore result in formation of memory traces that are faulty in nature and carry no significance in the real world. 3 - Erroneous perception Perception of an event has a central role in the coding of a memory trace. False memories may result as a result of faulty perception, which therefore convenes incorrect recording of memory traces right from the start of the memory process. If the perception of an event is at fault, there are no chances of a memory trace being correct; false memories therefore ensue. Perception, in turn is dependent upon a number of factors that prevail in the immediate environment of the preceptor. First and foremost is the duration of the experience; a brief exposure to a situation is more likely to produce defective memory traces as compared to a prolonged exposure which allows retention of fine details of an event. Another factor is the distance from the situation at hand; a distant view is less likely to be more revealing to an observer as compared to a close view of the same situation. Therefore, a person who experiences a situation or event from less distance is more likely to develop a strong memory trace. Another prominent factor is the amount of light in the environment; dim light is less likely to reveal sufficient details to the observer, and hence impaired memory trace. Well lit objects are more likely to bestow a correct memory trace. In addition to these factors, the physiological condition of the observer also plays a major role in this regard. If a situation is perceived under conditions of stress (which may be due to danger or other emotional factors), there is a high likelihood that the memory traces developed during such situations are faulty. Therefore, the assertion that faulty perception may lead to false memory traces appears logical. 4 – Memory Implantation It is very interesting to note that memories about childhood can actually be implanted into the minds of adults. Two main factors in this regard are social pressure and suggestion (Wade and Garry, 2005); both work together to allow an individual develop false memory traces of incidents that have no connection to the reality. An example of a powerful suggestion is to tell someone that his mother provided the details of an event of his childhood, when in reality the event never took place. Such strong suggestions set into motion the process that is referred to as ‘imagination inflation’; which ultimately culminate in the formation of memory traces that have no connection to reality (Bjorklund, 2000). The combined effect of suggestion and social pressure is manifested in the form of development of a belief; a belief that the suggested event took place during the past. Once this belief takes shape, the individual is forced to develop memory traces that have no connection to the reality. Such implanted memory traces are due to the combined effect of suggestion and social influence, and may profoundly affect the lives of individuals. Such false memory implantation gains significance in matters of criminal justice, where the development of such implanted memory traces may result in undue convictions. 5 – Interference Formation of memories is a continuous process; an exposure to external environment and the experiences that ensue are all contributory towards the development of memories on a continuous basis. Older memories are kept in the memory bank and are readily available when an individual attempts to recall older traces of memory (Smith and DeCoster, 2000). Newer traces of memory have a tendency to interfere with older traces of memory; the process manifests itself when children are allowed to recall incidents of their childhood after some years have passed. E.g. witnessing a real life event and later on reading about the same event in a newspaper with different details, is likely to interfere with the memory process and yield a condition where the individual is left confused over what happened. Likewise, totally different inputs about the same event from different sources are likely to affect the original memory trace of the event and in the process may render the individual confused or clueless about the reality. It can therefore be asserted with certainty that interference is an important factor that leads to the development of false memories in children and adults alike. Therefore, in cases of criminal investigation, it is the responsibility of forensic specialists to prevent children from undergoing this phenomenon to allow them recall information that is genuine and interference-free. Legal and clinical Perspectives Maltreatment of children is a very well recognized issue in modern societies of the world. From sexual abuse to physical or emotional insults; there is a wide range of maltreatments that are commonly witnessed throughout the different societies of the world. In such cases, it is very commonly observed that the main source of information is the child him/herself. It is therefore important to understand the way in which children recall and report the details of such incidents to the concerned authorities. Keeping in view the fact that children are prone to assimilation of false memories, it becomes a challenge for the forensic investigators to clearly separate the facts from the fiction and arrive at results that are reliable enough to base the judgment upon. In addition to their limited ability to recall incidents due to less age, younger children may also demonstrate impaired ability to recall incidents due to a lack of retrieval skills, deficient narrative skills and linguistic deficits. The deficiency in retrieval of memory may be related to errors in a child’s source-monitoring which refer to the ability of a child to recognize the source of information. Defects in source-monitoring may force the children to incorporate information that is not accurate and has come to their knowledge from sources other than the source under consideration. The authenticity of the information produced by a child is therefore lost. Additionally, if children during the process of interview infer that their interviewer favors certain responses, it is highly likely that the subsequent responses of such children are detached from the original accounts of their experiences (Howe et al, 2008). Conclusion Based on the above discussion, it can be concluded that false autobiographical memory in children is a well-documented fact and has a number of far reaching consequences in clinical as well as forensic settings. In younger children, the various aspects of memory continue to evolve with the passage of time, growth and development. A variety of factors play their role in shaping the faculty of memory in children. The effect of these factors may be beneficial or detrimental to the memory. The development of false autobiographical memory in children may be attributed to a number of factors which may act in isolation or in harmony. These factors are related to the perception and previous knowledge of individuals which play a central role in defining the pattern of memory traces that are formed later on in life. In cases where false memories are detected beyond an ordinary level, a complex interplay of these factors may also be the underlying cause. The notion of development of false memories becomes extremely important in cases of criminal justice where testimony of children is sought to assist in arriving at a decision. The idea of allowing children to provide testimony for conviction of criminals seems profoundly flawed when judged in the light of the fact that children are more prone to develop false autobiographical memories. Although forensic interviewers make every effort to ensure that false information does not get incorporated into the memory of young children during interview process; children may still produce information that can affect the authenticity of a legal judgment. It is therefore imperative that further research is conducted in this regard, to allow a better understanding of the working patterns of the memory of younger children. References Alexander, K. W., Quas, J. A., Goodman, G. S., Ghetti, S., Edelstein, R. S., Redlich, A. D., ... & Jones, D. P. (2005). Traumatic impact predicts long-term memory for documented child sexual abuse. Psychological science, 16(1), 33-40. Bjorklund, D. F. (Ed.). 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