High Self-esteem, Violence and Aggression - Essay Example

High Self-esteem, Violence and Aggression The view that low self-esteem causes aggression is widespread. The position that underpins this school argues that people with low self-esteem are more likely to experience bad feelings about the self and this supposedly drives or triggers aggressive behavior and violent reactions (Heitmeyer and Hagan, 2005, p. 484). Central to this position, for example, is the argument that shame, an experienced entailed in low self-esteem drives people to violence (Heitmeyer and Hagan, p. 484). There is an abundance of studies and research that support this position (see for example, the works of Donnellan et al. 2005; Thomaes et al., 2009; and Goldstein and Rosenbaum 1985). However, there is still an ambiguity and inconclusiveness on the part of empirical evidences that would establish the positive correlation between these two variables. Indeed, it is safe to conclude that – so far – there is no valid theoretical framework within this view that could explain the position that low self-esteem causes aggressive and violent behaviors. Recently there are sociologists and psychologists that posit how high self-esteem and not low-esteem causes aggression and violence. It has been gaining traction in the past decades. The available literature on this theme provides strong theoretical and empirical evidences that demonstrate how high self-esteem triggers aggressive and violent reactions. This paper will approach the issue according to these sources. The Self, Violence and Aggression It has been established that threats to self-esteem may lead to aggressive and violent reaction. Baumeister, Smart and Boden have established this in their study conducted in 1996 as they examined and analyzed an extensive amount of empirical literature. Leary and Tangney supported this further by pointing out how “aggression represents a response to threats” to self-esteem. They explained this further by articulating the effect of the threats to both in the cases of high self-esteem and low-self esteem individuals. It was pointed out that individuals with low self-esteem adopt many strategies to avoid threats whereas high self-esteem individuals demonstrate a variety of defenses as well. This appears to operate within the overlapping concepts of self-worth and self-appraisals and that the threats to these are naturally addressed with defensiveness. A negative attack to the self is immediately followed by a hostile reaction. The issue is whether the degree of contingency to self-esteem makes the difference in the way people respond to threats aggressively and violently. For example, prior research on domestic violence tend to reveal evidences of violence and aggression on the part of the partner who perceive a threatening behavior towards the favorable image of that individual’s self (Geen and Donnerstein, 1998, p.117). The previous dominant position is that if an individual has high self-esteem, that person has a generally positive outlook of the self and has a clearer and more certain self-concept (Leary and Tangney, 2005, p. 303). For this reason, they were less expected to display erratic or deviant behavior when responding to external threats to the self. But in several studies, which constitute the growing body of investigations, it was found that individuals with high self-esteem have the tendency to display violence than low self-esteem individuals. A case in point is the research conducted by Baumeister and Bushman (2014), which involved the measurement of self-appraisal. The study subjected its participants to taunts and insults in order to provide opportunities to aggress. This particular study found that the highest level of aggression was perpetuated by those people who have high levels of narcissism on account of the incidence of perceived threats to the ego. This is one of the most evidences that underpin the argument for this paper. The Role of the Ego High self-esteem is equated with favorable self-appraisal. It is typified by an attitude of high self-approval, which involves the perception that one is “significant, worthy, capable, or successful” and that one’s self is judged favorably in areas of actual performances, capacities and attributes leading to a high personal estimate of his or her self-worth (Dillon, 1995, p.30). A downside to this condition is the higher degree of affectivity. An individual with high self-esteem might feel good about his self or have favorable feelings of personal worth but such person is vulnerable because he has more at stake. He will have stronger emotional response to external threats such as other’s view of him. Despite the current modern conditions, particularly, with respect to the kind of support and education a person has, the affectivity” still plays a critical role even when it is considered as “psychologically primitive” (Dillon, p. 31). This affectivity, makes the self-esteem valuable, driving individual motivations and behavior. People with high self-esteem tend to be more arrogant, conceited, narcissistic, egotistical and generally enamored of themselves (Geen and Donnerstein, p. 114). It is the very concept of high self-worth that leads these individuals to view others as inferior, making it possible to disregard the rights and well-being of others with impunity. According to Geen and Donnerstein, this might be the worst manifestation because what is more prevalent is the outcome of threatened egotism where an erratic behavior arises when the highly favorable view of high self-esteemed individuals encounter external appraisal that is less favorable (p.114). The theory is that a highly favorable view of oneself would most likely trigger a deviant, irrational, problematic or hostile behavior when disputed or presented with an opposing and unflattering view from others. This position found support in several studies. For instance, there is the case of the study conducted by Schlenker, Soraci and McCarthy (1976) which established how people with high self-esteem tend to react poorly to criticism. There is also Baumeister, Heatherton and Tice’s work in 1993, which reported that individuals possessing high self-esteem tend to have irrational responses to ego threat. Toch (1993) collected several documentary evidences that revealed how many crimes were committed in response to insults and remarks given to belittle or threaten. An earlier work has already found how crimes such as murder and assault often arise as a reaction to threat to a person’s ego (see Katz 1988). These early works have provided the precedent for the current interest and consequent revelations regarding the relations of high self-esteem and hostile reactions. Baumeister, Bushman and Campbell’s more recent work – though acknowledges the incidence of non-aggressive behavior in some people with high self-esteem – further provided evidences supporting the higher incidence of aggression by citing additional characteristics displayed by high self-esteem individuals such as narcissism as a strong predictor to aggression. Here, it is important to underscore that people with high self-esteem are those more likely to exhibit narcissistic behaviors (Weiner, Tennen and Suls, p. 255). There are, of course, several studies that reveal how narcissism drives aggressive and hostile behavior (i.e. Pauletti et al., 2012). In this context, individuals with high self-worth are not only proven to have a positive view about one self but also expect the same opinion and recognition from others. Rhodewalt and Morf’s (1998) work provided the evidences that support how individuals with high self-worth tend to react with hostility and aggression when such self-conception is challenged or threatened. The threat to the ego and its role in aggressive behavior is also underpinned by the incidence of shame, an emotional response that is aggravated by the level of self-esteem: that, the higher the self-esteem, the greater the predisposition to hostility. As previously mentioned individuals with high self-worth has more at stake or more to lose. Heitmeyer and Hagan pointed out that losses of self-esteem typically evoke high emotional responses that lead to aggression because this is a way to ward off such strong emotional experience (p.485). Baumeister, Bushman and Campbell’s work also verified the position that low self-esteem individuals are less likely to attack or be hostile to another since it is inconsistent with their tendency to avoid risk and potential loss given their lack of confidence. Baumeister, Bushman and Campbell also underscored that aggression often emerge as a way to resist and reject external influence and threats particularly to the ego (p. 26). In this respect, Cale and Lilienfield’s (2006) work is helpful as it provided the framework that linked the threatened ego to psychopathic tendencies and aggressive behavior. Other Empirical Evidences There are many empirical evidences that support the position that individuals with high self-esteem are more likely to exhibit aggressive and violent behaviors. An important category in the corpus of literature involves the studies and analyses of the criminal behavior, patterns and motivations. A study by Wilson and Herrnstein (1985) using the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory is a case in point. This study found that low self-esteem as manifested in several psychological and behavioral traits conditions such as depression, introversion and lack of self confidence constitute a minuscule minority among the populations of violent offenders. Scully’s work further confirmed this as her interviews with rapists have revealed that the dominant group of these sexual offenders have remarkable high self-esteem, often bragging about their actions and accomplishments, a number of these claiming to be “multitalented superachievers” (p.112). There is also the recent study involving adolescents, it was found that those with high self-esteem tend to commit more delinquent behaviours (Yi 2012, p.259). Clearly, the evidences are not ambiguous or results of mere theorizing and conjectures. The sheer amount of findings that depict the positive correlation constitute legitimate and verifiable evidence that cover all possible demographics and length of research period. Conclusion Unarguably, on the strength of the evidences found in the body of literature, those with high levels of self-esteem are prone to aggressive, hostile and violent behavior. Such evidences are comprehensive both on the theoretical and empirical levels. The theorizing involved identifies the downside to having high self-worth. Particularly, when the individual displays narcissism and egoism, there is a clear predisposition towards aggression and violence. Psychologically, there was the established need to defend and respond to the external challenge that threatens the positive self image. The temperament to act on hostile behavior in defense is also aligned with the capability of an individual who is highly confident and has positive or superior view about oneself. It is not surprising, hence, when many recent studies reveal how many criminal offenders with violent delinquencies display high levels of self-esteem. This, of course, is not to say that individuals with low self-esteem are immune or less prone to exhibit aggressive or violent behaviors. This position maintains several valuable arguments. However, this paper seeks to highlight the issue regarding the legitimacy of the claim that people with high self-esteem are prone to violence. This view is theoretically and empirically sound and should be recognized because of its critical social policy implications. One must be reminded that there is a debate raging about this issue and that conventional view favors the opposing position. References Baumeister, R., Heatherton, T. and Tice, D. (1993). 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