The Way Emerging Field-Constructed Views of Human Nature - Literature review Example

Shaping of Psychology Susan K. Hochman Fielding Graduate I affirm that this is my original work and has not been copied or plagiarized from any other sources, nor has it been previously submitted for academic credit This paper will address the significant theories and ideas developed that helped position the foundation of psychology as its own field of discipline. It will tackle many of the noteworthy discoveries pertaining to social issues of the period and the solutions to everyday problems. This paper will also highlight the significant events that warranted and helped stimulate interest for the concerns of the times. These concerns include; education, child rearing, mental health, health and the shift of perceptions on each. The intellectual world in the Middle Ages was primarily sustained by the Church and the Medieval philosophy was infiltrated with the ideas of Christianity (MacDonald and Kretzmann, 1998). But, Aurelius Augustine, a philosopher and theologian, had much to say about the educating of children. He recognized that punishment does little in helping a child to learn. As Viney and King (2003) revealed, Augustine went so far as to say that threats do more harm and actually interfere with the learning process. The philosopher also shared his thoughts on addiction. He concluded that the use of criticism and reproach aids in addiction to alcohol. Benjamin Rush, a founding father of the United States, pioneered the approach to treating alcoholism as a disease, shifting the belief that it was sinful and that people chose to be addicted (Viney & King, 2003). Another major event was the deadly arrival of the bubonic plague known as the “Black Death,” that devastated Europe and killed millions. The epidemic had major implications for the social order of nations and communities. Deprived of the knowledge of medical basis of the catastrophe they were suffering from, Nobles and clergy in power asserted that they would be immune whereas in reality, they were not. The feudal system also played a role since the property owners needed to replace deceased workers, resulting in peasants traveling from their own villages to find work and asking for better pay knowing those in authority were desperate for their labor. This was a major outcome because it resulted in the population beginning to suspect the competence of those in power like the clergy. Besides, it also helped develop rights for the peasants, as was evident with an uprising of the peasant uprising and the increased emphasis that they placed on their civil liberties. The recognition and critical thinking movement of social issues was further exercised by the re-discovery and circulation of the Greek manuscripts in Europe. These manuscripts were finding their way into the hub of learning centers. They helped advance the departure from the traditional dependence on clergy, as well as establishing interest in human problems (Viney & King, 2003). There was increased interest in the Classics because people really wanted objective solutions to their social issues that they had been encountering for long. The cultural movement of the Renaissance introduced many reforms within the intellectual realm of scholars and civic leaders. As Viney and King (2003) showed, the period saw a de-emphasis on the religious thinking of “free will” and focused more on learning, intellect, and aptitude because any advanced learning other than the biblical teachings in those ages was discouraged (MacDonald and Kretzmann, 1998). It was also an era that was showing great interest in mental health. Even with this new focus, the Baroque period was peppered with witch hunting (Ellenberger, 1970, p.194). The movement, meant to be full of growth, still lacked the more scientific thinking to dispel superstition. Baruch Spinoza reasoned that the idea of witches was a fallacy and that no other forces were responsible for their behavior. It was not until Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution, introducing a naturalistic approach to emotional disorders, that a firmer intellectual shift was embraced in dispelling the belief in supernatural and theological solutions (Viney and King, 2003). The Enlightenment, Age of Reason, introduced the need to implement science in order to advance the growth of mankind. As Immanuel Kant argued, reason needed to be the driver of decisions, not “blind traditional faith” (Viney and King, 2003, p. 144). The progressive ideas of this period helped shape the intellectual progress needed to understand man because of which, there were movements to abolish serfdom and slavery, as well as cultivating freedom for Jewish people. John Locke provided a shift in educational psychology; he believed that humans are born with a clean slate, something like a white piece of paper that could be built on through proper education and learning techniques. He also believed that a child’s physical health effected their ability to learn, they needed to be rested, they needed exercise, and even at that early era, he understood the impact that too much sugar had on a child (Viney and King, 2003). Locke firmly believed that the environment shaped behavior. Immanuel Kant also had a major influence as a philosopher on the intellectual aspects of learning. Though his views differed from Locke, he argued that learning was an active act and the interaction of experience and reason were the best tools for knowledge (Viney and King, 2003, p. 145). The Enlightenment period believed in eternal reason, but it also centered on the idea that humans needed to understand how knowledge was best ascertained in order for them to mature and progress intellectually. This differed from the Romanticism period, which concentrated on specific cultures, to restore nations. It was deeply connected to nature and it was a departure from the age of reason, which focused primarily on man. (Ellenberger, 1970, p.200). There were many conflicting ideas on the role of psychology, learning, cognition, and the conscious and the unconscious state of mind. Carl Gustav Carus referred to psychological development as a process of transition from the unconsciousness to the consciousness. He defined psychology “as the science of the soul’s development from the unconscious to the conscious” (Ellenberger, 1970, p. 207). His theory bridged the transition from romanticism to positivism, which believed that science was the key to understanding the mind (Ellenberger, 1970). A major development was the shift in attitude toward mental hospitals whose establishment and expansion was not taken very seriously before. William Tukes and Phillippe Pinel played the role of pioneers in this as they introduced the concept of asylum as a haven that provided such people with protection that had been abused, beaten, or whipped for being mentally ill (Gollaher, 1995). It was particularly this realization that human psychology can be dealt with and operated upon through proper counseling and therapy to improve it if a proper system is established for this that facilitated the development of the mental institutions. Specialized doctors, who took a more active and personal role in their patient’s treatments, were now running them. Johann Christian Reil proposed to change the name of these hospitals, removing the stigma of “lunacy asylum.” He also established the need for a structured treatment plan to include physicians and psychologists. As Erich Neumann emphasized, the mind and physical body needed to be treated in unison. Dorothea Lynde Dix was an advocate of reform for mental patients and instituted some of the earliest social research on the status of the mentally ill in America (Viney and King, 2003). A major event in the political context was the European Revolutions of 1848. These political upheavals across Europe started a wave of revolution against authority and an upsurge of the working class demanding better treatment in all social aspects since the people faced many problems like the problems of child rearing, education, work, aging, and mental disorders. The demands of the working class had already been argued by Gottfried Wilhem Leibniz, who believed in a strong nation with the freedom for diversity (Viney and King, 2003). Even though the revolution was eventually quelled, it provided a foundation for democracy and a voice to oppressed nations. Functionalist William James, saw a need for “large institutions to find ways to honor traditional values of freedom, individuality, and pluralism” (Viney and King, 2003, p. 251). Hugo Munsterberg argued that psychologists should encompass a problem solving vision to find solutions for every day problems. He believed that tailoring treatment to the specific individual and their needs would benefit the patient the best (Viney and King, 2003). G. Stanley Hall helped in elevating the significance of psychology as a discipline by contributing solutions to real life issues (Viney and King, 2003). John Dewey illuminated the role of democracy. He argued that it should not be perceived as a piece of government, but a way of life (Viney and King, 2003, p. 265). With the attention to conquering problems of the average person, psychology expanded its scope to understanding the causes of behavior, as Robert Sessions Woodworth called “dynamic psychology” (Viney and King, 2003, p. 271). His contribution to the importance of the independent and dependent variables in experimental psychology helped define a true experiment. Leta Stetter Hollingworth helped to highlight the disparity between male achievements and women achievements and argued that it was virtually impossible for women to achieve when they were given unequal educational opportunities. Mary Wollstonecraft, a proponent for the emancipation of women, also argued this point. She referenced Locke’s white paper theory, emphasizing that women must also have a clean slate and in order for them to acquire knowledge to fill it, they need education. Social reform was helping psychology broaden its discipline because it was equipped to explore shared social grievances of society. The views on human nature, health and illness and change were being shaped by shifting views of psychology as well as how the discipline was helping understand behavior and the possibility of manipulating it. The role of behaviorism as a system within psychology brought attention to the field and introduced the idea that behavior could be controlled and possibly even predicted. This approach had major impacts on everything from education, child rearing, emotional disorders, and the effects of stress. Ivan Pavlov’s contributed a lot to the development of experimental psychology and conditioning, but his study on the nervous system illustrated consequences to the stresses of the average working man. He did not underestimate what a lack of sleep and long working hours could do to the human body and mind. Edward Lee Thorndike introduced the idea that work did not need to be disliked and understood that research was needed to unravel contentment and quality of life (Viney and King, 2003). John B. Watson’s research showed the powerful effect of conditioning and that most fears, anxieties, and phobias were the result of an early conditioning event (Viney and King, 2003, p. 296). This helped in understanding human nature and the possibility of changing unwanted emotional disorders through conditioning. A lot of research on different subjects was being conducted and the researchers needed to make it as diverse as possible to produce findings that would be applicable to the people belonging to all classes and statuses in the society. As Juan Luis Vives theorized in the 16th century, tapping into the human intellectual process is the only way to acquire knowledge and without this knowledge, social reforms are unattainable (Viney and King, 2003). Societies’ clamor to better their lives; breaking social barriers, promoting education, debunking myths, and obtaining scientific answers to stigmatized issues provided reasons for and played an important role in the development of psychology (Viney and King, 2003, p. 271). Even though Sigmund Freud believed that scientific studies should dictate social reform, not the other way around (Makari, 2008), the transformation of society in the context of psychology, worked both ways. Psychology was born during a time when there was an outcry for social and humanitarian improvement. The collective call for rights of women, child labor laws, mental health reform, better working conditions, education, end of slavery, and improved living conditions were exactly the revolutionary events psychology was equipped to challenge and explore. References Ellenberger, H. F. (1970). The discovery of the unconscious: The history and evolution of dynamic psychiatry. New York: Basic Books, Inc., Publishers. Gollaher, D. (1995). Voice for the mad: the life of Dorothea Dix. Free Press. MacDonald, S., and Norman, K. (1998). Medieval philosophy. In E. Craig (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Routledge. Retrieved from http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/B078. Makari, G. (2008). A revolution in mind: The Creation of Psychoanalysis. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, Chapters three and four. Viney, W., and King, D.B. (2003). A History of Psychology: Ideas and Context 3rd Ed. New York: Allyn and Bacon. Read More