Views of Masculinity and Femininity - Essay Example

?SOCIOLOGY OF THE BODY Introduction There are various social constructs and predetermined notions governing our society. These social constructs may not necessarily be generally applicable to the population, however, these are accepted by most people as true. Beyond such constructs, it is difficult to shift society towards other thought processes and constructs. One such notion is that the body is a social construction – an object – as it were. This paper shall critically evaluate this notion based on the ideas and ideals of gender and sexuality – on masculinity and femininity constructs. This study is being undertaken in order to establish a well supported notion or social construct in the sociology of the body. Discussion Different members of society often fashion or build their bodies based on accepted societal views of masculinity and femininity. In so doing, they often try to shape and use their bodies to fit their gender and cultural expectations. This practice seems to emphasize not so much on the distinctiveness of our bodies, but more on what society dictates as acceptable forms or shapes (Lorber and Martin, 2007, p. 227). Our genes partially determine our biological make-up and other environmental factors complete our physiology. Outside such biological constructs, cultural and social factors and attitudes attached to gender-based practices are also a crucial part of our overall make-up. Such practices create bodies which some social groups classify as masculine or feminine. In effect, the longing for better looking bodies have manifested in trends which lend greater support to cosmetic surgery, growth hormones, anabolic steroids, bodybuilding, and other fitness regimens for both men and women (Lorber and Martin, 2007, p. 227). Many advertisements for plastic surgeries also target men and women in their vulnerabilities. Men with gynecomastia or enlarged breasts, and women with small breasts have been exposed to ads which declare solutions to their issues – for men wanting to be rid of their gynecomastia and for women wanting bigger and perkier breasts (Lorber, 1994, p. 3). Women have also been exposed to the societal notion or expectation that having perky, large, and firm breasts, as well as slim bodies is the accepted shape to be in. In effect, many women wanting to fit the accepted societal demands have given in to breast lifts/reductions/augmentations and to puffier lips, toned abdomens, and shapely buttocks (Grogan, 2008, p. 52). Advertisements for plastic surgeries have capitalized on the portrayal of ideal images of beauty – young, fresh, thin, and shapely forms. Millions of Americans have heeded these demands with about 6.9 million of them giving into the cosmetic surgery in 2002 alone; 88% of these are actually women (Lorber and Martin, 2007, p. 278). Most of these surgeries have included liposuction, eyelid surgery, nose reshaping, breast augmentation, breast reduction, as well as hair transplants and ear reshaping for men. In terms of age, most of those seeking plastic surgery fall in the 34-50 year age group and most of these surgeries have been carried out among the whites, with few having been performed on minority groups (Lorber and Martin, 2007, p. 8). Due to its high cost, these surgeries have mostly been carried out in the affluent population, however, considering the general population’s obsession with losing weight through exercise machines and diet pills, it is a trend which still covers many people regardless of financial capability or ethnic affinities. Bodies are socially constructed because they are tools used by many people in order to gain some form of progress or advancement in their life (Davids, Evans, and Lorber, 2006, p. 55). Even if the business and employment world may capitalize on one’s skills, talents, knowledge, and educational background to determine employment, still, it cannot be denied that one’s looks affect a person’s success and employment status. One classic example is the fact that there has been no US President elected who was below 6 feet tall. Moreover, about 10% of men’s earnings can be credited to their height (Collins and Zebrowitz, 1995, p. 736). In one corporation, most of the employees were about 6 feet tall and the hiring manager mentioned that he preferred to hire employees over 6 feet tall because their basketball teams performed well during company games (Lorber and Martin, 2007, p. 278). His preference reflects society’s favourable praise for tall men. The view of tall men seems to be based on the belief that tall men are superior and driven. In the same company, in order to avoid the label of gender bias, the manager then hires women, but only those who are also tall. “When it comes to filling positions of authority, the male sports hero, astronaut, and combat soldier – symbols of the “right stuff” – are often the first choices (Lorber and Martin, 2007, p. 228). These individuals are viewed as possessing of physical strength and of a powerful motivation to succeed. This can be seen in a picture which features British World War I military men (Lorber and Martin, 2007, p. 228). Such picture portrays about 50 men in their uniforms. With one or two exceptions, all of these men are tall and thin; they have square jaws and strong chins; they define the quality of “classic good looks.” Studies have even established that the shape of one’s jaw is a strong determinant of a person eventually reaching a high rank in the institution (Mueller and Mazur, 1996, p. 569). For which reason, weak-faced men often do not reach higher military ranks. In relation to women seeking entry into the military, the challenge in their situation has mostly been attributed to their physical competence. When women were first allowed into the military, they were given boosters in their training in order to make it easier for them to accomplish the training; however, these boosters lost them actual points. With time, women were eventually able to cut through their physical limitations and use their strengths to accomplish the goal of training (Yoder, 1989, p. 530). In any case, these situations exemplify the different issues and preconceived notions which individuals have to go through in order to ensure that the social constructs of the human body would not interrupt in the actual assessment of their strengths and weaknesses. Feminism based on social constructs sets forth that gender is one of the most important elements needed to transform physical bodies and to ensure that they would fit the societal notions of female beauty and male strength (Arneil, 1999, p. 91). The clinical notions of the human body are that they are meant to be born and then to die and that male bodies are firm and muscular where female bodies are soft and smooth (Johnston, 2001, p. 66). However, the social constructs of beauty are based on individual qualities and notions of beauty. Society often portrays the female body in figures which are admired by social groups. In the cultural sense, these views are more than aesthetic, but are also assessed in terms of moral standards (Talairach-Vielmas, 2007, p. 38). Therefore, if a person has a body which does not fit the acceptable social construct, he or she may be viewed as lacking in self-discipline. On the other hand, those who have bodies which comply with the accepted conventions are admired and held up as ideals. Judging and punishing people would now therefore allow members of a group to coerce each other to conform to the social constructs (Stiman, Leavy, and Garland, 2009). Gender is a significant element in the transformation of the physical body into the social body. In the Western ideals, dieting, enlarging breast size, and acquiring face lifts help women to change their appearance and to match their ideals of the female beauty; and on the other hand, men lift weights and get face transplants in order to fit the male physical body ideal (Kivisto, 2010, p. 284). Such practices may however cause eating disorders and some women may suffer systemic damage from their silicone implants. And still, these do not dissuade the idealized men and women from ensuring that their bodies conform to the societal body ideal or social construct (Blum, 2003, p. 194). Since the human bodies are socially viewed in highly gendered societies, it is important to have a gendered construct of people and of situations because a unisex construct does not fit a world where people must know where to situate the people they would meet (Udry, 1994, p. 562). How people – male or female – are viewed is very much linked with who each person is. Our identity is very much a gendered identity in that, who we are is tied in to our gender and the activities and behaviour which are attributed to such gender. It is therefore difficult to determine the degree of gendering based on the human physiology and how much of it is attributed to the social construct, unless a degendered society is implemented (Berry, 2003, p. 124). Such society would not create differences through a gendered-based treatment of men and women or of boys and girls. Therefore, even as the natural biological make-up of males and females also dictate how their bodies are used, the social constructionist feminist theory sets forth that the ideal physical body types which are being encouraged to exist in society are based on gender ideals and stratification systems (Albrecht, et.al., 2003, p. 150). In the Western and developed nation setting, men are expected to be aggressive individuals who initiate action; they are also considered as protectors of women and of children. Their bodies must therefore be strong and muscular (Culbertson, 1998). Women are considered nurturers and emotional support systems. They are therefore expected to yield to men and to be sexually appealing when they are young and maternally plump when they are old (Lorber and Martin, 2007, p. 279). There are accepted variations to the above imagery, especially involving female bodybuilders and male ballet dancers. However, the norms still have a way of emerging and overwhelming these variations. For example, among male ballet dancers, they are still known for performing moves which are based on their stronger body build (Burt, 1995, p. 14). Female bodybuilders are also known for having to overcompensate for the reduced femininity found in their sport by using make-up, wearing their hair long, and posing with grace and creativity (Mansfield and McGinn, 1993, p. 34). If they do not do this, they are labelled as lesbians or as “butch;” and they are consequently often judged based on male standards. As such, being seen as men would hardly win them points from the rest of society and within the fields they compete in. Feminist opinions have put a spotlight on the social notion of gendered bodies through the social and cultural dynamics which are now seen by members of society. In effect, the political activism of feminists is on wanting to improve the status of women by placing as much value on women’s body, same as that value placed on men’s bodies (Butler, 1993, p. 519). The characterizations about gender which include the social constructs about bodies are based on social arrangements and cultural traditions which in turn promote gender as a social construct (Lorber, 1994, p. 13). Being a social construct, gender puts people into the men and women category with both groups having distinct qualities, personalities, and body types. Such gender-based qualities, or what may be referred to as ‘manliness’ and ‘womanliness’ are meant to install people into their future social roles – that of “father” or “mother” (Lindquist, 2006, p. 14). Gender has various elements and facets. We see these facets in men being installed in positions of power – power which they can use over women which women cannot use over them. There are various differences among men and women, however, similarities are also apparent. Such similarities are seen socially, however due to pervasiveness, these similarities seem to be physiologically based (Feingold and Mazzella, 1998, p. 190). Women’s inherent and learned emotional sensitivity seem to make them perfect nurturers and caregivers; and men’s coldness and objectivity make them appropriate for logical and scientific reasoning. However, there has been evidence seen to indicate that men do cry and they can also be emotional and that women can be warriors, as well as hero materials (Lorber and Martin, 2007, p. 278). Another characteristic observed is the fact that men’s qualities seem to be superior to women’s, thus further supporting the social dominance of men. Men’s superior strength seems to give them the edge in labour, even when such labour does not actually involve work with heavy machinery or any other forms of physical labour (Courtenay, 2000, p. 1385). In men’s work, their physical and technical competence is often assessed and these two qualities are considered masculine qualities. Each quality also contributes a little power to men which eventually allows for lesser supervision and higher pay. Men’s greater strength is also affecting gender stratification in the workplace and in society in general. Females are usually smaller than men and the upbringing of both sexes also contributes further to the social construct (Reis and Sprecher, 2009, p. 252). Females play with dolls and are prompted to watch romance movies; whereas males play with toy cars and toy soldiers and are prompted to watch action movies. Since this seems to be the pervading norm in society, women are often excluded from different manual jobs and this effect is also seen in their daily activities (Reis and Sprecher, 2009, p. 252). Women have become more dependent on men for changing their car tires or in replacing tiles on their roofs. Women are also often sexually harassed by men who see them as nothing more than sexual objects. This physical inferiority is often made to translate in other activities which are not even based on lifting heavy objects of doing manual labour (Reis, et.al., 2009, p. 253). It is made to translate in managerial jobs and other jobs which women can actually easily be employed in but are not considered for. Conclusion Based on the above discussion, our society is very much dominated by the notion that the body is a social construct. The beautiful or the unattractive in the female or male body is a question which is based on social and cultural constructs. It is a social construct because the body’s use, interpretation, and characterization are based on the preconceived and accepted cultural and traditional notions. For males and females, their physiological characterization has made their bodies more than just physical forms, but it has also defined them in terms of career and in terms of the overall roles in their lives. The mother is built to nurture, to suckle the infant, and to lend her emotions to her family and friends. The father is the provider, the labourer, the disciplinarian, the guy who changes the tire and replaces roof tiles. They are built for such duties as their bodies also dictate such roles. In effect, their bodies become social constructs and cultural notions of their roles in both the traditional and contemporary realm. Works Cited Albrecht, G., Fitzpatrick, R., & Scrimshaw, S. (2003), Handbook of social studies in health and medicine, California: SAGE Arneil, B. (1999), Politics & feminism, London: Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Berry, H. 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